Chapter 1

Philosophical Rationale for Appropriate Technology

Robert C. Wicklein

The University of Georgia

Athens, Georgia

Charles J. Kachmar

South Gwinnett High School

Duluth, Georgia

During late night television it is common to have the following scenario depicted to the viewer.

Announcer: It is a land that time seems to have forgotten. (Sympathetic pan flute music in the background. The camera shows a desolate land cleverly capturing the sweltering waves of heat rising from the earth.)

Announcer: Scorched in the equatorial sunlight, the small spring is the only source of fresh water available to the population of this harsh land. (The camera now pans to a small fresh water spring, which is mostly mud. People are drawing vessels of water in the midst of an array of cattle. Insects are plentiful.)

Announcer: This spring is the only promise of relief of thirst available for human, beast, and insect. Human consumption of this water will result in illness, amebic dysentery, and ultimate death. This is ‘Nailone’, a four year old child sent by her mother to retrieve water from this spring for drinking. (Presentation of a short clip of a beautiful child in tattered clothing, barefoot, obviously malnourished, and in desperate need of medical treatment.)

Announcer: Nailone is the fifth child in a family of six children who inhabit a one-room dwelling made of the most primitive building materials available. (Camera pans to a picture of a thatched hut.)

Elizabath Trailer: (A famous American film and television personality is seen playing with Nailone and her family and taking “red-cross-like” packages off a late model flat bed truck.) You can make a difference in the life of Nailone and her family for only $22 a month. This would provide drinking water, food, clothing, adequate shelter, and medical attention that children like Nailone desperately need. For your $22 a month you will receive a picture of the child that your donation has assisted. Won’t you call the toll free number below and give children like Nailone a fair chance at life?

The above mentioned scenario is a form of technology that is very successful here in the United States. Telemarketing has revolutionized the way we do business. It relies on immediate action to address a need or to solve a problem. The consumer picks up a phone, the operator takes the information, the transaction (transfer of money) is done electronically in most cases, and the product is shipped to the consumer. In the case described above, we must examine the appropriateness of this technology as a solution to the problems facing Nailone and her family. Through understanding the background, philosophy, and design criteria for Appropriate Technology (AT) this ‘help’ campaign can be identified as an example of exploitative capitalism disguised as assistance.

What is Appropriate Technology?

Perhaps the best place to begin a discussion on the topic of AT is to provide a working definition that will serve as the foundation for all future thoughts and deliberations in this book. Appropriate Technology concepts have been discussed throughout this past century by notable leaders and scholars such as Gandi and Julius Nyerere; however, the undisputed founder of the AT movement was E.F. Schumacher, a British economist who worked extensively in India and Burma during the 1950s and 60s. Schumacher encapsulated the philosophy of AT in his book, Small Is Beautiful, (1973) where he described the central doctrine of AT as (a) simple, (b) small scale, (c) low cost, and (d) non-violent. The U.S. Office of Technology Assessment has further refined these tenets by describing AT as (a) small scale, (b) energy efficient, (c) environmentally sound, (d) labor intensive, (e) controlled by the local community, and (f) sustained at the local level (Office of Technology Assessment, 1981). Many definitions of AT have spawned from these criteria; however, when the scope and focus of technology education is considered, the following explanation incorporates the core of the AT thrust with the fundamental base of technology education. The following working definition of AT will serve as the foundational base for this book.

Appropriate Technology seeks to aid and support the human ability to understand, operate, and sustain technological systems to the benefit of humans while having the least negative societal and environmental impact on communities and the planet.

Concept and Rationale for Appropriate Technology

A central concept of AT is that technology must match both the user and the need in complexity and scale (Hazeltine & Bull, 1999). With this as a base concept, let us consider the world we live in. World population passed 6 billion humans in 1999. If current growth rates continue the planet’s population will be in excess of 9 billion by the turn of the next century (Brown, Flavin, & French, 1999). The majority of this growth will take place in developing countries where resources are currently being stretched to the breaking point and will surely be exceeded in the future. The question of creating a reasonable standard of living that can be sustained for this many people is critical to the very survival of the planet. No amount of foreign aid or advanced technology from industrialized countries will be able to provide for the basics of life for all these people. The only real chance for any type of quality of life must be found by people of the industrialized and developing worlds working together to utilize all of their resources in the most effective and efficient ways possible. This will absolutely require the inclusion of the most abundant and powerful resource available: Human Beings.

The philosophical foundation for AT is found in a number of political, religious and grassroots (community) level movements. No one focus or theory can be attributed to the whole of AT, therefore, the philosophical foundation is an eclectic mix of a number of issues that when combined form the essence of AT. The primary forces and theories behind AT are found in the following movements and worldviews:

· European Socialism (working together for the common good)

· Entrepreneurial Capitalism (supply & demand)

· First Century Christianity (The Golden Rule)

· Non-Violence Peace Movement (working for change in peaceful ways)

· Freedom & Equality (failure of western aid projects)

· Decentralized Marxism (non-authoritative collective support)

· Feminist Movement (encouraging women through self-help)

· Breaking of the Technopoly (loosing the hold of high technology on humans)

· African Communalism (supportive of local cultures and customs)

· Environmentalism (considering the planet’s ability to sustain life)

· International Labor Movement (empowering the common person)

In each of these paradigms, the central condition of empowering people to develop to the best of their abilities and to have freedom to succeed or fail based on their own efforts is critical. The appropriate technology movement has at its philosophical heart the desire to capacitate people of all walks of life to create (1) Meaningful Employment, (2) Comprehension of Technology, (3) Self-Reliance, and (4) Reduced Environmental Impacts. These represent the application of the philosophical basis for AT and are described below.

Meaningful Employment

Appropriate Technology, by design, seeks to be inclusive of people by providing opportunities for meaningful employment. A significant benefit of AT is the creation of employment and service options that would not exist without this form of development. In addition, the types of employment associated with AT often lead to self-employment or small-scale business operations where the opportunities for interesting and challenging work environments are more possible. Modern high technology industries seek to provide maximum output of product while limiting human involvement. The efforts to achieve uniformity of product quality using high tech systems often leads to the creation of dull, boring, and monotonous work. Appropriate technology concepts seek to accomplish the absolute opposite effect: maximum human involvement with reasonable product output. The result of this approach would stimulate growth at a level that could be sustained locally and provide jobs which are considerably more interesting than what is typically found in many high tech manufacturing facilities.

Comprehension of Technology

The incremental steps to progress associated with AT provide a reasonable basis for people and communities to understand the technological processes being employed, therefore, helping to ensure that the technology can be sustained at the local level. This concept is also very different from high technology applications, where technological complexity is far beyond the comprehension levels of the majority of the users of the technology and requires highly-trained technicians using sophisticated equipment to keep the machines and systems operating correctly. The lack of application of this concept has led to a broad range of failures in international aid efforts resulting in a high degree of wasted resources for all individuals and groups involved.

Self-Reliance

Sustainability is a central concept of AT and is essential for the success of a device or system being developed. The only way that sustainability can be achieved is by the end-users of the technology taking responsibility for all facets of the system. Therefore, the development of self-reliance in creating and maintaining AT devices is fundamental to the overall success of the system. Key to this concept is the availability of materials and equipment used to create the AT devices that are within budget of the end-users. The infrastructure required for this process should be limited to what exists at the local level. Again, this concept is philosophically different from modern high tech industries that rely upon a strong external infrastructure that is independent from local conditions and environments.

Reduced Environmental Impacts

After decades of mechanized industrialization, enormous pollution has had a significant impact on the planet, some of which may not be repairable. In many geographical regions around the globe, large-scale destruction of the biosphere has resulted from over population and poor planning. With significant population increases anticipated within the developing world during this century, the chances of more momentous, broad-ranging environmental problems will surely increase. A key concept of AT is the design and function of devices that cause minimal negative impact on the environment. Success of AT is directly measured with regard to its ability to operate and meet human needs without causing undo pressure or stress on the local environment. Appropriate technology could provide a workable alternative with regard to environmental issues for the developing world.

These concepts provide the philosophical underpinnings for AT and are fundamental for all future discussions of this subject. By considering these concepts the reader will begin to grasp the importance of AT to all aspects of life, even if they never plan to leave the boundaries of the United States. Appropriate Technology may play a significant part in the future of our planet and, therefore, should be an integral part of our knowledge base. With these concepts as the basis for our understanding of AT we can better plan for meeting and solving the problems of the future.

Goals of Appropriate Technology

The following basic goals represent the intended focus of Appropriate Technology.

· Aid humankind at the grassroots level

· Provide employment for the average citizen

· Sustainable/durable over time

· Utilize locally available resources

· Promote self-reliance

· Encourage self-supporting processes

· Low cost

· Limit cultural damage

· Limit environmental damage (Hazeltine & Bull, 1999)

Contemporary Trends and Issues in Appropriate Technology

There are many factors effecting the development of AT worldwide. From its historical roots, the developers of AT have sought to design and use technology to help solve human problems at their most fundamental levels. Various technological devices have been created and used extensively throughout the world, some with high degrees of success and others as dismal failures. The process of developing successful AT requires depth of knowledge in a wide variety of areas. Developers must consider sociological and anthropological issues along with engineering and technology concerns. Economic and dissemination factors must be weighed as well as training, education, and maintenance procedures. The seemingly simple AT devices that have been successful in the past represent deep thinking and significant hard work by all those who have contributed in the development process. As the population on the planet continues to rise and as the resources needed to sustain life for all inhabitants of the planet are stretched the need for applying AT techniques and devices will increase dramatically. This will apply to people living in developing countries as well as those in industrialized countries like the United States. The impact that AT can have on people has the potential to make the difference between prosperity and poverty, even between survival and death.

Limitations of Appropriate Technology

By design, AT seeks to down scale, to be small and controllable at the local level. Because of this basic characteristic, production capability will always be limited and, therefore, inhibit the overall potential of the people using AT devices. As Richard Critchfield (1977) stated, “Small is beautiful, but it’s still small.” (p. 5). Critchfield was referring to Schumacher’s seminal writing on AT in his book Small is Beautiful (1973). By this he meant that even though some AT devices were successful and sustainable over time they were still too small in scope to play a significant role in improving conditions for the great masses who were in need. Typically, a large-scale high technology application is introduced within a developing country through an outside source (e.g., Intel’s Microchip Production Plant in Costa Rica) and are not controlled at the local level nor provide a sustaining redistribution of capital for the common people. Appropriate Technology seeks to restrain radical high technology applications like Intel’s, having a limiting effects on the potential growth and impact of developing nations to compete in world markets. Therefore, there are serious concerns by many country leaders with regard to the transferability of knowledge gained from AT applications to higher technology operations.

Another potential problem with AT approaches is that even if a device is effective and meets all the design criteria it still may not be acceptable to the end-users. Sociological and anthropological issues play a significant role in the overall success of AT. A technological device can only be effective if it fits within the societal constraints of the people who are using it. Many quality AT devices have ended in failure because they were not acceptable within the customs of the people for which they were designed to be used.

Appropriate Technology and the Technology Education Curriculum

A major thrust of technology education is to instruct students on the processes needed to solve technological problems. To accomplish this we often focus the majority of our instructional time on the use and application of a few high tech tools and applications (e.g., robots, CAD, CNC). We then conclude that this helps our students to become technological problem solvers. This approach may be particularly interesting to technology teachers; however, it does very little to help students to develop the thinking skills needed to solve problems within the broad field of technological applications. By focusing the majority of our instruction on specific technical applications and procedures (e.g., programming robots to pick and place objects, creating unrelated world wide web based pages, following step-by-step procedures in designing electrical circuits, etc.) we often limit the beneficial results of our field of study.

The field of technology education must heal itself from this myopic condition and see the world in a broader sense if it is to be a significant participant in the educational arena in the 21^st century. The majority of real world technological problems and their plausible solutions do not require complicated “high tech” applications. The technological problems that most of us face on a day-to-day basis are best solved by employing much lower levels of technology than what is currently presented in the technology education laboratory. This is especially true for the majority of people outside of the industrialized countries. Approximately 80% of the earth's population live and work in environments where high tech solutions would be inappropriate when solving technological problems. Therefore, the need exists for technology education to address technological problem solving from a more holistic and appropriate level; that is, less high tech, more thoughtful problem solving using available resources.

But what would this form of technology education really look like? What would be different about this curriculum than what is currently being used? What would be the benefit of this type of program for students and the profession? Possibly, this form of technology study would lend itself in helping students learn to analyze and solve problems within a more realistic context. Starting with their own school and community and then progressively moving out to the state, region, nation, and world students could benefit by developing a focus on learning that reflects the application of AT solutions within a problem-solving environment which effects them directly; for example, addressing environmental recycling within their own school, planning and designing recreational facilities for their school or community, or designing a special effects scene for a school play. The difference this form of technology education takes is that the students are given more opportunities to be creative, to think logically, and to act responsibly as they work to solve problems that are important and intrinsic to them. The use and application of tools and other technological devices within this context are studied and used as they apply rather than in a narrowly-defined construct of a typically-prescribed technology education classroom activity.

The problem-solving opportunities could also move beyond a local concern to address problems or opportunities that go outside the boundaries of the school, community, or even the state and nation. By continuing to focus the student on broader topics that are based in reality and important for humanity the learner is able to grow and develop as a human and to understand that he or she can make a difference in the world. This form of technology education would be uniquely different from existing models; students would begin to see themselves as part of a solution in helping humanity. They would begin to understand how technology fits into the overall plan of creating a better world for everyone and how they can be a part of the solution, not just an observer that has little control or influence in the overall scheme of things.

The learning contexts associated with AT and problem solving are critical to both framing important technology and scientific concepts and enlightening students as to everyday meaning of erstwhile inert knowledge. In this approach the learning is situated in the context of a global concern or issue. Students could work towards solutions based on criteria that is pertinent to a given situation (e.g., problem scenarios embedded in real world conditions and environments, social/cultural factors integrated as part of the problems). One way of situating this for students is to use current or relatively current news stories into which key technological concepts could be anchored. For example, contexts can be selectively induced or pulled out to amplify circumstances where technology has been associated with dire consequences (e.g., the influence of clear-cutting Brazilian forests on soil erosion and air quality, drinking water contamination in Honduras following recent flooding from a hurricane). This format may stimulate students to engage in real-world events and employ technological problem solving to develop plausible conclusions where there is not a clear-cut answer. Through these types of learning environments students become immersed in research, analysis, exploration, manipulation, and informed experimentation to provide workable solutions. At the same time, they become aware of people and places that they may have never been aware of before.

The potential impact of this approach to technology education could be profound. First, it would be a radical departure from current practices of piecemeal exposures to select technologies and focus in on real-world situations where appropriate forms of technology will be studied and employed to solve problems. A primary goal in this form of technology education will be on understanding real-world environments and determining plausible solutions while considering the impacts on people. Students and teachers will be required to consider a variety of human conditions and developmental criteria in designing and developing appropriate solutions to problems. Second, this approach will require that students and teachers begin to address human conditions outside of the typical school classroom. As this approach is developed over the course of a school term, students will have opportunities to experience how people from diverse backgrounds around their communities, across the nation, and around the globe could benefit from appropriate technological solutions. In short, this is a much more comprehensive approach to knowing and doing technology education, it's technology with a human face. The consequences for not considering this form of technology education will be the continuation of the status quo.

As we enter the 21^st century radical changes will continue to take place in the forms and uses of technology. Our current practices of picking and choosing a few types of high technologies to study and experience may impress school administrators and politicians. However, the educational effect on students will be minimal, leading to a very skewed perspective of what technology is and what it can do. The end result will continue to be unreflective students with minimal problem-solving skills.

If we are serious about our instructional content and want to prepare our students for real-world futures then we must help them to see how technology can be used to solve problems in realistic ways. Our planet needs more thoughtful humans that care deeply and can think and solve problems appropriately. Technology with a human face should be at the forefront of the technology education movement for the 21^st century.

Summary

The concerns and issues that AT addresses are important for all people on Earth. Regardless if we live in industrialized countries like the United States or in developing countries like Guatemala, AT can play a significant role in our lives. At the center of AT is the concept that wise use of our resources will yield positive benefits for people. Whether we are using sophisticated, advanced technologies to produce highly-precise laser measurement equipment or using simple hand tools to produce an uncomplicated water pump for irrigating crops, concerns for effectiveness and efficiency are integral for both processes and products.

Competition for all resources around the world will increase drastically within the next decades and the necessity to effectively meet human needs must be carefully examined, designed, and implemented if we are to maintain or improve the standard of living for people groups around the globe. Appropriate Technology techniques enable people from different walks of life to be more self-reliant and less dependent on centralized systems that may not be the best providers of their basic needs. In addition, AT allows the common person to have a greater involvement and understanding of the technological systems that surround them. Another benefit of AT is its ability to provide sustainable employment opportunities and be less culturally disruptive at the local level.

Educators within the field have only briefly examined the significance that AT has on the technology education curriculum. Because of the designed simplicity, AT concepts and techniques have typically been overlooked by the majority of technology educators in lieu of the more advanced technologies associated with high tech systems (e.g., robotics, lasers, computers, etc.). Although it is understandable that technology education programs in the United States would focus and concentrate on high tech systems, it is regrettable that the field has not taken advantage of this valuable opportunity to address technological content and problem solving. Appropriate Technology topics provide teachers and students with unique ways in which they can learn about technology, its role in societies, its ability to solve human problems, and its impact on people. The International Technology Education Association document, Standards for Technological Literacy, (2000) submits that the overall purpose of technology education is to develop broad conceptual understandings of technology. It states:

Because technology is fluid, teachers of technology tend to spend less time on specific details and more on concepts and principles. The goal is to produce students with a more conceptual understanding of technology and its place in society, who can thus grasp and evaluate new bits of technology that they might never have seen before. (p. 4)

This goal is noble and worthy of continued teaching and learning efforts; however, the reality for most technology education programs is that they do not focus on the broad concepts of technology but rather on the particulars of a few randomly-selected technological tools and equipment. Lewis (1999) stated that:

As we look at technology education and the perennial, almost ritualistic quest for structure, it should be sobering that a cost of such quest might be the neglect of the needs and experiences of children. Perhaps it is because the field is highly masculinized and is consequently taken in by technological gadgetry. But especially in the U.S. context, where the subject is rarely taught in the elementary grades, focus on children and on learning is minimal in our discourse. Technology per se has been our consuming passion and we forget that the enterprise we are about is schooling. (p. 51)

The tendency of technology educators is to be enamored by the gadgetry of technology. This propensity has often prevented the profession from moving to the higher intellectual grounds of developing a “more conceptual understanding of technology and its place in society” as per the goal in the Standards for Technological Literacy (2000, p. 4). By design, AT requires that the human users of the technology be placed at the very forefront of any effort to design and construct a technological device. Therefore, AT as a curriculum topic or component would be ideal to help the field of technology education to address the deeper conceptual issues called for by the Standards for Technological Literacy.

The study of AT topics within a technology education program will require students to address world issues. This format of instruction is visionary for integrating technology education content with other school subjects. In order for AT devices and systems to be successful they must consider numerous issues and factors from a variety of academic disciplines. For example, if AT was taken into account when it was determined that a given community could benefit from the redesign of a water distribution system for irrigating crops then it would require that AT design and construction methods be utilized. This design and construction process would require the use of aspects of the following academic disciplines:

· Biology in conducting an environmental impact analysis

· Sociology in understanding the structure of the community

· Anthropology in evaluating the interactions of people

· History in determining what had been done before and with what degrees of success

· Geography in the study of the topography and location of the irrigation system

· Mathematics in calculating the volume and flow of the water

· Language Arts in providing written and oral instruction on the use of the irrigation system

· Trade and Industrial Education in the construction of various devices for the irrigation system

· Business Education in determining budgets and planning procedures

· Agricultural Education in determining irrigation needs and plans for various crops

· Technology Education in the design, organization, engineering, and construction of the entire project

School subjects using this form of integration process provide a valuable educational experience for students, allowing them realistic opportunities to put knowledge into practice when solving problems. Integrating student learning has been advocated by numerous educational groups (International Technology Education Association, 2000; Bodelly, S., Ramsey, K., Stasz, C., & Eden, R., 1991; Stasz, C. & Grubb, W. N., 1991) in order to reinforce and complement the materials that students learn. The Standards for Technological Literacy supports the integration function of technology education and states, “When taught effectively, technology is not simply one more field of study seeking admission to an already crowded curriculum, pushing others out of the way. Instead, it reinforces and complements the material that students learn in other classes” (p. 6). When AT components and issues are connected with the technology education curriculum, the opportunity for integration is open wide to many rich experiences that can benefit all, students, teachers, users of the technology, and the planet as a whole.

In conclusion, AT as a concept and application can offer the people of Earth a viable alternative to the development strategies that have been used in the past. By focusing on people first and their needs, followed closely by a deep concern for the natural environment, AT can contribute to long-term improvements for everyone, people living in developing countries and those in industrialized countries. Most of the technological applications that have been employed throughout history have come in the form of tools and equipment used to solve existing problems. This reactionary process has stimulated the creation and refinement of multitudes of devices and systems, some of which have been very helpful to mankind (e.g., printing press) and others have been incredibly destructive (e.g., nuclear weapons). Appropriate Technology provides people with a proactive technological option which can empower them in development while protecting their culture and the natural environment. The strategies and tactics utilized in AT offer viable alternatives to the high tech approaches employed in many locations world wide because they are sustainable over time, and they fit the culture and society in which they are being used. In the future, the solutions to our problems will not necessarily be found in the high tech fixes that we are accustomed to experiencing. In the future, it may be just as likely to solve problems using a form of Appropriate Technology that is smaller, more sustainable, less complicated, and more environmentally friendly. Exploring AT as a viable technological option is the theme, goal, and purpose of this yearbook.

Review Questions

1. Compare the international aid programs of the United States with the concepts of Appropriate Technology. What are benefits and shortcomings of each?

2. Discuss the relevance and value of Appropriate Technology within the modern world. Does Appropriate Technology really have a chance to improve the lives of people worldwide?

3. What would you consider to be the strongest reasons why Appropriate Technology concepts, techniques, and practices should be considered for developing countries?

4. What would you consider to be the strongest reasons why Appropriate Technology concepts, techniques, and practices should be considered for industrialized countries?

5. How would you justify the applications of Appropriate Technology in light of the potential limitations that it may bring to the people that use it?

6. Do the concepts of Appropriate Technology have a legitimate place within the curriculum of technology education? If so, on what do you base this?

7. Discuss the benefits and shortcomings of employing Appropriate Technology concepts and applications in the technology education curriculum?

8. Develop a teaching and learning scenario where Appropriate Technology concepts and applications can be utilized within your technology education program.

9. Identify ways in which you could use Appropriate Technology techniques to integrate other school subjects with your technology education program.

10. Why do we not hear more of Appropriate Technology strategies in the United States and world wide?

11. Based on the definition of AT provided, discuss how British colonization of India assisted in the development of the Ghandian theory of appropriate technology.

12. How does fundamental needs assessment contribute to the development of AT?

13. Appropriate technology uses local resources to solve local problems. Explain the economic benefits of this ideal as it pertains to employment, productivity and self-reliance.

14. Appropriate technology uses local resources to solve local problems. Compare and contrast the differences between using imported goods and local resources.

15. Technology attributes to changes in societal values and customs ( i.e., drive-through technology). AT attempts to lessen these changes. Is it important for developers of technology to understand the disciplines governing the culture of a given community (i.e., religion, customs, etc.)? Explain why.

16. Is it possible to limit the negative impacts of environmental manipulation while advancing technologically?

17. Site an example of how the concept of AT can be used to integrate the Technology Curriculum with the following academic disciplines:

Language Arts

Science

Mathematics

Social Studies/Anthropology

Art

Music

Religious Studies/Philosophy.

18. Discuss how a technology education curriculum centered on the study of AT can assist the learner to develop critical thinking skills.

19. Although teaching for transfer cannot be predicted, discuss how you would use a technology education curriculum centered around the study of AT to integrate technology education with academics.

20. How does a study of AT satisfy the national goal of developing a technologically literate society?

References

Bodelly, S., Ramsey, K., Stasz, C., and Eden, R. (1991). Integrating academic and vocational education: Lessons from eight early innovators. (Document No. R-4265-NCRVE/UCB). Santa Monica, CA. Rand Corp.

Brown, L. R., Flavin, C. and French, H. (1999). State of the world. New York: W.W. Norton & Company, Inc.

Critchfield, R. (1977, September). Small is beautiful, but it’s small in RF Illustrated. New York: The Rockefeller Foundation.

Hazeltine B. and Bull, C. (1999). Appropriate technology: Tools, choices, and implications. San Diego: Academic Press.

International Technology Education Association. (2000). Standards for technological literacy: Content for the study of technology. Reston, VA: International Technology Education Association.

Lewis, T. (1999). Content or process as approaches to technology curriculum: Does it matter come Monday morning?. Journal of Technology Education, 11(1), 45-59.

Office of Technology Assessment. (1981). An assessment of technology for local development. (GPO Stock No. 052-003-00797-5). Washington D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office.

Schumacher, E. F. (1973). Small is beautiful: Economics as if people mattered. New York: Harper Perennial a Division of Harper Collins Publishers.

Stasz, C. and Grubb, W. N. (1991). Integrating academic and vocational education: Guideline for accessing a fuzzy reform. (Grant No. VO51A80004-91A). Berkeley, CA. National Center for Research in Vocational Education.

Chapter 2

Economics of Appropriate Technology

Stephen Petrina

University of British Columbia

Vancouver, British Columbia

Patricia O’Riley

York University

Our task is to look at the world and see it whole.

— E. F. Schumacher

Ecology is permanent economy.

— Slogan of the Chipko movement among women in Himachai Pradesh, India

When E. F. Schumacher was agitating for humane, economic practices as alternatives to state and corporate capitalism during the 1960s and 1970s, he was not merely providing models for what he called an “Economics as if People Mattered.” He was also expressing the political principles and practices of an economics as if animals, plants, and the ecology of Earth mattered. Like Marx, Schumacher located structural inequities and injustices in systems of economic production. But unlike Marx, Schumacher accounted for “cultural” and “natural” capital in his economics. He emphasized the importance— to people and to nature— of technological practices that were cheap enough for common use, were simple enough in technique for common use, and relied on local knowledge, labor, and materials for the production of things for local maintenance and use. Indebted to the work of Gandhi, Schumacher (1973, p. 161) referred to this as “Intermediate Technology” which was qualitatively different from the poverty-reinforcing tools in much of the southern hemisphere and the large-scale, power-hungry tools of the northern hemisphere. Eventually Intermediate Technology was popularized as “Alternative Technology” and “Appropriate Technology” (AT) in India, North America and various parts of the world (Carpenter, 1988; Kumar-Reddy, 1986; Pursell, 1993; Rybczynski, 1980; Willoughby, 1990; Winner, 1978). From its very beginnings, AT meant that we account for “natural capital” as well as capital equipment, infrastructure, knowledge, and labor in decisions “economic” (Schumacher, 1973, p. 14). In this regard, an economics of AT can also be read as an economics of ecodesign, green design, sustainable design, and ecology— practices that share the roots and branches of AT (Madge, 1993; Scott, 1996).

This chapter is intended to provide an overview of the economics of AT. Principles of accountability, participation, and sustainability are used thematically as AT practices are described as decentralizing alternatives to large-scale and global, market economies. We argue that over the past three decades, the economics of AT has expanded to encompass both the design of sustainable or “green” technologies and the design of sustainable lifestyles. With foci now on changing qualities of technological practice as well as reducing quantities of consumption, design education and technology education are part of a complex political ecology and economy (O’Riley, 1999; Petrina, in press).

Economies of Appropriate Technology

Schumacher’s model for an alternative, sustainable economics was based on Buddhist values of simplicity and non-violence. Instead of belaboring choices between “modern growth” and “traditional stagnation,” or between “materialist heedlessness” and “traditional immobility,” Schumacher used the Buddhist value of the Middle Way to position AT as a middle or intermediate path between distinctly different styles of technological practice. Schumacher situated the political economy of AT between capitalism and socialism, as he advocated both a nationalization of small, semi-autonomous industries and small scale private enterprise to assist in creating work. The end was not profit for some and poverty and the elimination of work for most, but rather a “Right Livelihood” for all (1973, p. 58). An economic system based on these values would aim for the “maximum of well-being with the minimum of consumption” and oppose the maximization of consumption and production (p. 54).

In Buddhist economics is a concern for simplicity and non-violence in both material means and ends (Mendis, 1993; Schumacher, 1973, pp. 50-58). If a desired end is an attractive jacket to wear on a cold winter day, then the desired task is to create a garment with the smallest destruction of material and natural resources and with a design that required the smallest input of toil and import of capital. Designing a complex labor-saving machine to perform complicated tailoring with large swaths of imported cloth is a folly and contradiction of the value of simplicity. At the same time, designing for a maximization of production and complicated tailoring which invariably result in an exploitation of resources is a barbarity and contradiction of the value of non-violence. In conjoining the values of simplicity and non-violence, Buddhist economics encourages a reverence for and celebration of all sentient beings and inorganic matter.

For Schumacher and AT practitioners, these values were at the core of AT. This translated into popular and specific economic policies and practices shaped to:

1. create jobs in rural areas (to oppose migrations to over-populated cities);
2. maximize employment by keeping unit investment low;
3. support relatively simple production methods (to use local knowledge and avoid expensive training periods);
4. make use of local raw materials to produce goods that were actually in demand on local markets;
5. make use of decentralized, renewable energy resources whenever possible;
6. promote collective work and political action;
7. promote education for self-sufficiency in developing, using, and managing AT projects;
8. support the sharing of knowledge, resources, and skills outside of import, patent, and royalty systems; and,
9. have a benign or no effect on local, natural ecologies (Darrow & Pam, 1981, p. 11; Schumacher, 1977).

AT in practice and theory was and is a marked contradiction of conventional economics.

In the United States (USA), especially after the second World War, conventional economic principles translated into investments to increase the scales of electrical power generation plants, extractive engineering, factory automation, mechanized agriculture, private utilities, and urban infrastructure. Assistance agencies, such as the World Bank, for dollar-poor countries supported programs that followed a pattern of industrialization set by countries like the USA. Markets for what had become typical of capitalist expansion were strengthened through governmental and international aid subsidies. There was a false assumption that a social contract translating economic growth into well-being would be upheld. Symptoms such as cultural and ecological degradation, monopolization, structural unemployment, and political instability in “developed” and “developing” countries made AT somewhat appealing during the 1960s and 1970s. In the mid 1970s in California, the Office of Appropriate Technology (OAT) was established and at the USA federal level, mandates of four agencies were turned toward AT through policies of President Jimmy Carter. For example, in 1975 the USA Agency for International development was appropriated $20 million to establish an AT program and $3 million was granted to establish the National Center for Appropriate Technology (NCAT). Institutions to spur investment in alternative markets were short-lived however and both OAT and NCAT were disbanded early in President Ronald Reagan’s first term in the 1980s. Some technologies advocated by NCAT, such as solar power, were appropriated by industrial corporations with notions of market control and centralized, large scale development (Pursell, 1993; Willoughby, 1990, pp. 191-196).

There is a general skepticism in AT toward “free enterprise markets” and competition, and a support for public, market intervention to create a climate of choice. Markets with a large number of small, competing businesses, or markets without monopolistic control propped up with governmental support, would actually be compatible with AT. A number of small-scale businesses in industries such as cotton-weaving, maize-milling, and sugar-processing have been found to generate between three and fourteen times as much employment with more income per unit of capital than similar large-scale businesses (Stewart & Ranis, 1990, p. 9). AT is not a rejection of market economies, but rather makes a case for small-scale markets that support the forms, patterns, practices, and products of AT (Kumar-Reddy, 1986, p. 299). Practitioners have countered competition and efficiency criticisms by leaning toward markets and state intervention for creating economies conducive to choice (Jackson, 1984, pp. 79-86; Willoughby, 1991, pp. 309-330).

With principles of accountability, participation, and sustainability, markets for AT were and continue to be based on small scale exchanges and decentralized, local control. Hence, much of the work in AT over the past four decades was done in either the non-profit sector or through non-market and unpaid labor and volunteerism. Bartering, international volunteer programs (e.g., Volunteers in Technical Assistance), self-sufficiency homesteads and villages, and self-employment for-profit account for a large share of the market economy of AT. Much of this is done informally and unregulated by accounting procedures. With laissez-faire capitalist markets dominated by private control, AT necessarily demands that technological practice be done both outside of, and within, conventional economic relations and in a parallel economy based on labor and a low volume of capital infrastructure (Ekins, 1986; Jacobs, 1991; McRobie, 1981; Schumacher, 1973, 1979; Schumacher & McRobie, 1977). For instance, a survey of funding for AT activities in “developing” countries in the late 1970s indicated that one-third of all funds were voluntary and self-generated and one-half came through governmental assistance (Jequier & Blanc, 1983, p. 84). But there have also been a range of appropriate technologies that have relied on market forces (Willoughby, 1990, pp. 185-209). Whether informal or market-driven, AT demands that unpaid labor and its division around the home for family and personal health— work unaccounted for economically in most countries— be configured into economic decisions. However vital unpaid work is to local and national health, it has remained invisible in conventional economic accounting schemes and policy.

Conventional arrangements of economic and social power militate against the recognition of unpaid work, specifically women’s work. Reflecting a division of labor in nearly all countries, women perform a majority of unpaid, technological work related to domestic child and elderly care, cleaning, food preparation, and subsistence production within systems of unpaid work. In conventional economic terms, this amounts to “between 25 and 30 per cent of any country’s current and future output” (Appleton, 1995, p. 6). Resource allocation based on conventional accounting has meant that unmeasured or “invisible” work was not invested in. Appleton has argued that AT is an opportunity to redefine what is domestic and what is technical in a way that women’s expertise is recognized to contribute to economic intervention (Appleton, 1993a, 1993b, 1995; Hazeltine & Bull, 1999, pp. 296-314; Wickramasinghe, 1993).

AT practices have favored health over financial wealth, poor people over rich, rural residents over city dwellers, self-reliance over economic dependence, and the unemployed or unpaid over employed. In this regard, AT favors a political economy that mitigates against monopolistic control of market and wealth (Willoughby, 1990, pp. 228-234). These types of commitments have proven effective in the Prato region of northern Italy, where small-scale wool textile manufacturers have won support over large-scale, capital-intensive businesses (Willoughby, 1990, p. 206). Most contentiously, AT also suggests a radical political economy of equitable distributions of income within and between countries, realignment of foreign aid policy toward supporting the principles of AT, and the creation of new political agencies to regulate distributions of wealth and waste. Within a current economic system of state and corporate capitalism, AT and similar practices are typically marginalized at the expense of ecology, equity, and social justice. Skeptical of the power of financial elites, the political economy of AT has developed around grass-roots distributions of power and alliances with diverse political groups such as environmental justice workers, human-rights organizations, organic farmers, post-colonial feminists, and sustainable energy activists (Gedicks, 1993; Knudson, 1992; McGowan, 1984).

The political economy of AT has helped challenge patriarchy which sanctions, maintains, and perpetuates domination through practices such as child labor and gender-stereotyped divisions of labor between men and women. For some ecofeminists, “environmentally and ethically appropriate technology is a precondition for the liberation of women” (Warren, 1993, p. 14). AT is “appropriate” insofar as it is appropriate for females, or meets the local needs of females “in ways that do not contribute to the continued inferior status or condition of women’s material lives cross culturally” (p. 23). Within the political economy of AT are possibilities of confronting environmental sexism and racism by confronting patriarchal control of and power over females through technological design. In AT, one cannot afford the “privilege or luxury of talking about women, nature, or technology separately, as if issues of women, nature, and technology are not intimately related” (p. 26).

This political economy of AT is underwritten by a moral economy whereby a web-like interrelation of values lends a logic to the composition of its economics and politics (Daston, 1995). Normative principles such as accountability, participation, and sustainability are defined in relation to values such as access, affordability, conservation, equity, justice, non-violence, prudence, self-reliance, simplicity, and smallness of scale. This moral economy provides a framework for AT practitioners to make judgements on specific technological decisions and policy directions. Clearly, cultural relativism plays a role in this moral economy but does not determine judgement on appropriateness. It can be argued that nuclear power is appropriate for a technologically sophisticated, dollar-rich culture, but this judgement is made outside of the moral economy of AT. Within this moral economy AT practitioners have been able to remain sensitive to cultural and racial differences while attending to an international effort of a common future for the collective good (Hazeltine & Bull, 1999; McRobie, 1981; Mollison, 1990, pp. 1-9, 507; Porter, 1995; Reddy, 1986; Schumacher, 1973, 1979; Schumacher & McRobie, 1977).

Market, political, and moral economies operate in tension with each other and in tension with a global racial economy and international division of labor (Bandyopadhyay & Shiva, 1986; Harding, 1993; Sardar, 1986). State and corporate capitalist economics have managed to maintain historical inequities generally between the southern and northern hemispheres. Countries in Africa, South America, and southeast Asia have been subjected to high levels of indebtedness (i.e., capital, finances, labor) and poverty mainly through exploitive, economic relations with particular countries in Europe and North America. “[T]he haves can only have” noted Kumar-Reddy (1986, p. 297), “only if the have-nots do not have, in the sense that the affluence of the elites can be preserved only at the expense of the masses.” She elaborated:

Such disparity cannot be associated with stability; it can be maintained only by force. Thus the exploitation, injustice and misery inherent in duel societies implies the immorality of the western pattern of technology. Thus not only is the western pattern not feasible, it is also immoral....what is immoral cannot be sustained.

Throughout this past century systems of child labor, colonialism, environmental racism, indentured labor, and slavery have operated as functions of this global political economy. Panjabi (1997, pp. 5-6) summarized this interdependence as follows:

In the process of creating today what is called the developed world, the European and American governments, driven as they were by an ethic that is not regarded as favorably now as it was then, destroyed the self-sufficiency of Asian and African countries under their control; converted varied agricultural systems into a precarious reliance on cash-crop production (rubber in Malaya, cotton and tea in India); forced colonial exports to bow to the dictates of fluctuating world trade pricing; and all but wiped out local crafts and ancillary production which provided supplementary income for hard-pressed farmers.

He could have added that imperialist practices were not without violent resistance as indigenous peoples were killed, raped, or moved to reservations as their land was taken for production (Gedicks, 1993). The racial economy of AT, however, remains sensitive to how this history has shaped perceptions of colonized and colonizers, acknowledges racial inequities within and between countries, and supports grass roots action for combating economic racism. In fact, there has been a systemic inclusion of justice within this racial economy and disenfranchised individuals and groups are valued for their knowledge and skills and provided with techniques to explore and expand their strengths for economic or political power. The success of AT actually depends on the increased ability of Africans, East Indians, Indigenous peoples, Latin Americans, and southeast Asians to mobilize for economic and political power. AT rests on potentially powerful alliances of aboriginal and immigrant, black and white, and poor and rich peoples in resistance against economic imperialism and supremacy (Kumar-Reddy, 1986). This practice depends not on the promise of participation and racial cohesion, but on the act of solidarity in good faith. In other words, a reduction of “free-market” practices of habitat destruction, non-renewable resource exploitation, and endless material growth is directly tied to the financially poor countries’ search for alternative technologies for sustainable livelihood and development. As India’s Prime Minister, P. V. Narasimha Rao said at the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro in 1997,

We inhabit a single planet but several worlds. There is a world of abundance where plenty brings pollution. There is a world of want where deprivation degrades life. Such a fragmented planet cannot survive in harmony with Nature and the environment, or indeed, with itself. It can assure neither sustained peace nor sustained development. We must, therefore, ensure that the affluence of some is not derived from the poverty of the many. As Mahatma Gandhi put it with characteristic simplicity, our world has enough for each person’s need, but not for his [or her] greed. (quoted in Panjabi, 1997, pp. 96-97)

Accountability, Participation and AT

When Lawrence Summers, chief economist of the World Bank, legitimized the toxic industry and dumping policies of his agency, he touched off a global scandal and demand of accountability in 1991. “Just between you and me,” said Summers, “shouldn’t the World Bank be encouraging MORE migration of the dirty industries to the LDC’s [Less Developed Countries]?” “[H]ealth impairing pollution,” he continued, should be done at low costs and confined to countries with low wages. “I think the economic logic,” he reasoned “behind dumping a load of toxic waste in the lowest wage country is impeccable and we should face up to that” (quoted in Bullard, 1993, p. 20). To critics, logic suggesting that pollution be generated and dumped at sites of least resistance was typical in an agency that had been accused of “bankrolling disasters” through its commitment to “technocratic export-led” development models that favored the rich and undermined equity and sustainability (Fox & Brown, 1998, p. 1). For managers of the World Bank, arguably the world’s most influential agency for assistance in “development,” this crisis in the bank’s accountability was turned to reform. In 1994 a relatively autonomous Inspection Panel was established to investigate claims that the World Bank was not accountable to grass-roots problems related to development projects. Criticisms, from people ill-effected by the bank’s projects, were mobilized to hold the World Bank accountable for its practices; this was an indicative sign of the times. The World Bank was among the first international aid agencies in the early 1970s to declare that development and sustainability were necessarily compatible, yet its practices had come to contradict this declaration. There exists a crucial and delicate relationship between accountability, participation, and sustainability in AT.

In 1971, the World Bank formulated its first policy commitments to AT, generally responding to the agitation and success of Schumacher and the Intermediate Technology Development Group (ITDG) (McRobie, 1981, pp. 19-71). From that time the World Bank has financed an increasing number of AT projects, mostly in poor, rural areas of financially poor countries (World Bank, 1976, 1978). AT practices funded by the World Bank were to be consistent with the host country’s national development policy, useful and affordable to consumers, fit the host’s socio-cultural setting, make efficient use of local resources, and develop a local capacity for the planning, designing, implementing, and managing of AT. But unlike Schumacher in his economics, the World Bank envisioned AT as a stage in a longer process of full development and industrialization. Nevertheless, the ITDG, like other AT groups, were valuable assets to agencies wanting to link development and sustainability such as the United Nations Industrial Development Organization, World Health Organization, and World Bank. ITDG consultants were hired in the early 1970s to help turn the World Bank’s $1.67 million rural road building project in India toward AT practices. The challenge was to innovate with appropriate technologies as complements to the labor-intensive practices advocated by the World Bank (World Bank, 1978). A similar road construction project was supported by the World Bank and ITDG consultants in rural Kenya (McRobie, 1981, p. 50; Schumacher & McRobie, 1977). Yet while bureaucratic agencies such as the World Bank were focused on funding and economic bottom lines, local beneficiaries were interested in participation and improved conditions. Similarly, the ITDG and Schumacher were interested in participatory action and accountability in results. In large-scale enterprise, accountability is necessarily compromised or sacrificed.

Whereas capitalism is dependent on high rates of participation in the consumption of goods and services, AT depends on high rates of local participation in design, planning, production, and politics (Knudson, 1992; Prey, 1994). At its base, broadened participation in design tends to issue a wider range of alternatives and possibilities. In addition, a practice inviting broad participation functions on a safe assumption that users or the “affected” are best placed to choose what technologies to adopt and redesign. Projects that are based on simple, low-scale, and non-violent technologies tend to enable and sustain high rates of participation in choosing emphases and directions. And social participation and control tend to strengthen self-reliance from within. Schumacher loathed large-scale, political hierarchies and advocated low-scale, information-centered, open, practical systems for political decision-making. He was obsessive about broadening opportunities for disenfranchised people to access money, resources, and time for their economic livelihoods and production processes. One project that Schumacher and the ITDG were fond of noting was the Sarvodaya Shramadana Movement in India. “People’s participation is the cornerstone of the movement,” McRobie wrote in 1981, which involved over 5,000 village level workers and one million participants (p. 220). Decision-making was done at the local level where village industries were producing for a village market and economy. This was consistent with Gandhi’s notion of “production by the masses,” and Schumacher defined the technology necessary to support this practice as: “self-help technology, or democratic or people’s technology— a technology to which everybody can gain admittance and which is not reserved to those already rich and powerful” (1973, pp. 145-146). Nevertheless, with assumptions on gender norms, opportunities have not always translated into women’s participation in technological affairs for either financially rich or poor countries (Appleton, 1995, p. 7).

These notions of accountability and participation were embedded in AT through the early work of the ITDG and Schumacher, who saw accountability as a factor of trust. Simply put, accountability means that people and agencies participating are held accountable for practices that mitigate against achieving sustainable results. Accountability, participation, and sustainability are core principles in practice. To economically participate is to be held accountable to sustainability.

Sustainability and AT

While Schumacher and other advocates of AT did not refer specifically to sustainability in the 1960s and 1970s, their practices were attuned to the necessities of sustaining natural ecologies. For Schumacher, the technology necessary to support “production by the masses” made use of local knowledge and experience, and was “conducive to decentralisation, compatible with the laws of ecology, gentle in its use of scarce resources, and designed to serve the human person” (1973, p. 145). In Small is Beautiful as well as Good Work, Schumacher began by describing the delicate interrelations between economics and ecology. Through mass production, consumption, and waste, he argued that “developed” countries were squandering the world’s “natural capital,” or in base economic terms, liquidating these “capital assets” (1973, p. 14). Natural capital refers to renewable (e.g., living species and ecosystems), replenishable (e.g., surface and ground water supplies), and non-renewable (e.g., fossil fuels and minerals) resources. He used the examples of fossil fuels, “tolerance margins of nature” in composting new chemicals, and the “human substance” or psyche (p. 19). AT represented the possibility of a “new lifestyle, with new methods of production and new patterns of consumption: a lifestyle designed for permanence” (p. 19). Permanence of natural capital was sustainability. Of course this notion of economic sustainability in AT was more an exception rather than the rule. Practice tended to emphasize technological sustainability where “green” or eco-technologies were developed and disseminated to reduce energy or waste.

Agencies such as the World Bank and United Nations also tuned into the politics of sustainability, but it wasn’t until the late 1980s that sustainability was placed alongside development on a global agenda. “Sustainable development” was popularized through circulation of the World Commission on Environment and Development’s (WCED) report titled Our Common Future. Sustainable development was “development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs” (p. 43). The WCED or Brundtland Commission began by arguing for the need to live equitably within a delicate ecosphere.

The Earth is one but the world is not. We all depend on one biosphere for sustaining our lives. Yet each community, each country, strives for survival and prosperity with little regard for its impacts on others. Some consume the Earth’s resources at a rate that would leave little for future generations. Others, many more in number, consume far too little and live with the prospects of hunger, squalor, disease, and early death. (p. 27).

The economics of maximum production and consumption had to be, as many had argued before, reconsidered in the face of an ecological imperative of conservation and a social imperative to minimize human suffering.

The notion of sustainable development has had a number of conflicting interpretations and even within Our Common Future there are contradictions (Wackernagel & Rees, 1996, pp. 32-40). Some interpretations leaned toward “sustainable” and focused on ecological stability and distributive justice. Others leaned toward “development” and focused on growth. The concept of sustainable development allowed for weak interpretations such as the latter, which suggested that the “substitution of equivalent human-made capital for depleted natural capital” was good economics (Wackernagel & Rees, p. 37). This weak interpretation means that a forest could be depleted as long as its equivalent in income-earning potential comes from factories or other means. Here, “developed” countries appear highly sustainable while the poorest nations in Africa are the most unsustainable. In this version of sustainability, high material standards can be maintained at the expense of natural capital. With a weak framing, the United Nation’s Brundtland Commission recommended “more rapid economic growth in both industrial and developing countries” (WCED, 1987, p. 89). This might have made sense if growth was not seen as an increase of size in material accretion but rather as an enrichment of quality of life. The World Bank (1992, p. 8) has been reinforcing this weak interpretation of sustainability as “sustainable development.” World Bank policy suggests that countries can exchange accumulations of human capital for depletions of natural capital. “What matters,” in World Bank policy, “is that the overall productivity of the accumulated capital…more than compensates for any loss from depletion of natural capital.” Natural capital can be depleted as long as aggregate capital (humans, machines, etc.) is not reduced. The consumption of nature, in the United Nations and World Bank policies, is healthy if it produces a net growth of capital (Norgaard, 1994, pp. 17-20; Sachs, 1996, pp. 22-24).

Strong interpretations suggest that sustainability means that we live within the given productive capacity of nature or live within a range of “limitations imposed by the ability of the biosphere to absorb the effects of human activities” (Madge, 1997, p. 51). This means that there be absolute limits established for the consumption of nature and the scale of economies. In this perspective, the ecological health of the planet translates into a biophysical and psychosocial wealth for humans. The challenge of a strong interpretation of sustainability is in accounting for the natural capital requirements of economic activities. Since Schumacher’s time of “cost-benefit analysis,” a number of helpful models for economic accountability have been developed. For example, the Genuine Progress Index (GPI) has been developed as an alternative to the Gross National Product (GNP) and Gross Domestic Product (GDP) indicators in vogue in political economy since the 1920s. The GNP and GDP are inaccurate and misleading measures of prosperity and well-being in that they do not account for the ecological and social costs of economies. Developed by Americans Cobb, Halstead and Rowe, the GPI accounts for the unpriced value of natural and social capital in addition to values of conventionally measured economic production (GPI Atlantic, 2000).

Another model, which demonstrates both the simplicity and complexity of accountability and sustainability, deserves particular attention. The “ecological footprint” was developed by Wackernagel & Rees (p. 3) to account for resource flows or streams into and out of communities and economies. The ecological footprint “accounts for the flows of energy and matter to and from any defined economy and converts these into the corresponding land/water area required from nature to support these flows.” Wackernagel & Rees argue that we account for our resource consumption and waste assimilation requirements in terms of land area, or footprint. The footprint represents the “appropriated carrying capacity” of terrestrial ecosystems necessary to support a given person, society, country, or product (p. 11). This appropriated area necessary to support the habits of affluent countries has gradually increased throughout this century. The current ecological footprint of a typical North American is “three times his/her fair share of the Earth’s bounty. Indeed, if everyone on Earth lived like the average Canadian or American, we would need at least three such planets to live sustainably” (p. 13). A planet where everyone imposes an over-sized footprint is not sustainable. The ecological footprint puts economics into local and global perspectives and is effective in accounting for the sum of demands on nature from given lifestyles.

Establishing a clear, visible account of economic processes is central to the practice of accountability and sustainability through AT. Indeed, accountability in AT means that all “costs”— ecological, cultural, social— and not merely conventional economic costs are configured into design decisions. Like Schumacher, Wackernagel & Rees speak to “ecological” and “socioeconomic” sustainability. Socioeconomic sustainability means that we come to terms with social inequity and material disparity. As Wackernagel & Rees (p. 134) state the problem, “how can we reconcile the disparity between the rich and the poor at the limits of ecological stability in a socially just and politically acceptable manner?”

Appropriate Forms of Capital, Property, and Work

In the last two chapters of Small is Beautiful, Schumacher described ideas for gradual transformation to a decentralization and nationalization of large-scale, private business. “Private enterprise,” wrote Schumacher, or the “private ownership of the means of production, distribution, and exchange” is driven by greed and the profit motive (1973, p. 247). But he differentiated between small-scale enterprise of the working proprietor and large-scale ownership of passive owners living “parasitically on the work of others.” Small-scale enterprises aimed to assist in creative work, were personal, and had enormous social utility. While large-scale enterprises, according to Schmacher, were unjust in that large pools of labor and public infrastructure were exploited for profit. Relations in these large enterprises were impersonal. He recommended that gradually, the conversion of private to public shares of large-scale enterprises be increased to fifty per cent, and profits be split evenly between private owners and the public. Details in capital investment made his new pattern of socialization or nationalization a clear, albeit contentious, alternative to conventional economics. Nonetheless, Schumacher and most other AT practitioners placed efforts and hopes in small-scale enterprises and political arrangements for economic justice.

In AT, the question of whether small-scale technological redesign or communal reform ought to come first is a ‘chicken or egg?’ question. The challenge has been to work toward changes in economic and communal arrangements as complementary and interdependent. Neither one is a precondition for the other— both are necessary. But it is the latter that had been neglected in AT practices to the detriment of long-term, socioeconomic sustainability. AT came to represent alternative technologies rather than these, a reallocation of resources, and communal reform. In North America, the options tended to be communes, libertarian style self-reliant, single homesteads, or coping within conventional, large economic systems. The “intentional village” option, so crucial to AT, was rarely considered.

Intentional communities or villages are defined as a relatively small group of people (i.e., 30-500) unified by a common ethic and commitments to biological preservation and land conservation, mutual enrichment, and economic interdependence through support structures such as local currency and trade, public services, and shared capital (Mollison, 1990, pp. 519-557). This idea is based, for example, on models of aboriginal, African, East Indian villages as well as old cities like Florence and Vienna. Intentional villages can be located within any number of areas including cities or suburbs, isolated regions, or adjoined to existing villages. An ethic for appropriate resource use and voluntary simplicity typically includes commitments to:

1. reduce needs to earn by developing food, energy, and shelter;
2. earn and trade within the village as much as possible;
3. produce a surplus from services for outreach potential;
4. provide as many of non-material needs to villagers as possible (e.g., child care, education, entertainment, recreation, work);
5. cooperate and participate in various enterprises;
6. provide access to tools.

Commitments to energy, land, and water conservation tend to be strong with bases on AT practices which are consistent with Schumacher’s principles. Property trusts, created and governed by villagers investing varied amounts of money, are used to manage and purchase land for ethical reasons (e.g., protection, reclamation, rehabilitation, sustainable energy maintenance). Investors are given opportunities to design recreational areas, do site work, hold leases, or provide supplies for various duties. This is one way in which money and services are kept within the village system. While a locally created currency supports an internal system of exchange, income generated through outside services is useful for replacing degenerative (e.g., tools, vehicles) with generative assets, investing in procreative (e.g., trees, wildlife), informational (e.g., books, seeds), or conservative (e.g., dams, insulation, strategic forests) assets. Money is also useful for exchanges outside the village to secure (buy or rent) assets and goods which cannot be accessed within the village. Ethical investment involving money, time, and work is used for assisting in conservation and reduction of waste; building energy conserving buildings; founding ventures; growing organic food; producing clean transport and energy systems; and producing durable, useful products. Ethical investments within intentional villages support “good work.”

Good work lends productive form to peoples’ livelihoods (emotional, intellectual, physical) and appeals to their desires to engage their capacities in the world in a rewarding and positive way (Gillingham, 1979, p. 204). Playing various roles in production, service, and recreation depends on a supportive structure of family, friends, and co-workers. Confinement to one form of labor, whether by choice, force, or necessity is to be the exception rather than the rule. Good work— paid and unpaid— involves caring for the Earth and for other people. To be sure, good work is about functioning at local and global levels.

Summary

The centralization and globalization of capital have pushed the scale and volume of economic pressure on the Earth well beyond sustainable limits. With liberalized trade agreements translating into “anything goes” policies toward vast, free-enterprise markets in the 1990s, we have witnessed yet another decade where economic options in “developing” and “developed” countries have been narrowed. The southern hemisphere has become a dumping ground for surplus material and military goods along with dangerous agro-chemicals made illegal in northern countries like Canada and the USA. Street-level markets are flooded with “out of fashion” consumer items while biocides such as Chlordane DDT are liberally used on fields and cultivation facilities in countries such as Ecuador. Large-scale, capital driven textile and shoe manufacturers have made the exploitation of children and women common practice in sweatshops in Central and South America and southeast Asia.

Consumption of products and services increased in profoundly unsustainable amounts in the last half of the twentieth century, quadrupling since 1950. Reflecting huge inequities, it is common knowledge that 20% of the world’s richest populations are using 80% of the world’s resources (Sachs, 1996, pp. 16-17). For example, while at least three-quarters of all Americans and Canadians live a life of comfort, one-quarter of the world’s population do not have basic necessities such as food, shelter and clean water. In commodities and services, industrial countries out-consume developing countries by a factor of sixteen to one. American consumers outpace their industrialized counterparts by equally staggering amounts of consumption and the generation of waste (Wackernagel & Rees, 1996; Westra & Werhane, 1998). Along with consuming 120 pounds per day in resources, each American throws four pounds of garbage away each day. The USA consumes as much oil for leisure activities (i.e, pleasure boats, jet skis) as India consumes for its entire economy. Globalization is meaning that northern or western cultures are overproducing and over consuming at the rest of the world’s and the future’s expense, and the resources necessary to maintain current levels of consumption and production are rapidly depleting. All in the name of economic development and growth, globalization in its realities makes possibilities such as AT extremely important.

As argued here, AT is personal and social, which is to say that it is a politics of personal choices and relations. In most areas of the world today, rejecting the values of capitalist economics and its concomitant globalization is not economic autonomy or freedom. People in nearly all countries today are forced to act within a pervasive system of capitalism, but a compromise of the types of principles in AT is neither imminent nor necessary. Inasmuch as AT is about choosing among technologies and lifestyles, it is a facet of the larger debate over the nature of economics, capitalism, communitarianism, socialism, and other paths. And appropriate technology education speaks directly to the debate on education, indoctrination, and human justice. Currently, education about economic matters is typically no more than indoctrination in the ways of capitalism for a vast majority of students in countries such as Canada and the USA. As Nelson (1983, p. 3) concluded:

There is a hazy boundary between education and indoctrination, and in few areas is that boundary more hazy than in education about economic matters. Economics provides a primary rationale for identifying, explaining, and legitimizing power, and education provides a primary agency for producing believers. We come to understand the societal determination of what constitutes value, what accounts for production, distribution and consumption of goods and services, and the direct relationship of wealth to power, in educational settings: family, peers, media, and schools. That understanding serves to legitimate a particular interpretation of what economics is, how it should work, and who should be in charge of explaining it. Contrary beliefs are given little credibility.

In some states (e.g., Florida) in the USA, there are statutes prohibiting, in public schools, criticisms of free enterprise and capitalism, or prohibiting a celebration of socialistic views. In design and technology education, especially in the USA, pro-capitalist and pro-corporate sentiments are predominant and rarely, if ever, balanced (O’Riley, 1996; Petrina, in press).

Teaching AT in design and technology education necessarily requires that economic matters be addressed without bowing to the compulsions and dictates of capitalism. For those who argue that design and technology education offer ideal settings for interdisciplinary work, AT provides a wealth of diverse topics including economics. And a core lesson that AT prompts us to learn is that economics, like ecology, is rooted in the Greek oikonomos, or knowledge of the household— not only individual houses but the household of Gaia. Perhaps AT will be a catalyst for us to get the house of design and technology education in order lest we continue to contribute unnecessarily and unwittingly to the disorder of our big house— the Earth.

Activities for Global Economic Awareness and Activism

Activity #1. Global Economic Awareness

OBJECTIVE: To illustrate to students the imbalances of the current world order.

PROCESS:

A. Present students with Scenario I from the Findlay-Kettering Committee on International Awareness Fact Sheet.

B. Present students with Scenario II from the Real Global Village.

C. Divide students into groups to demonstrate global distributions of wealth and purchasing power.

Scenario I: Imagine that we could compress the world’s present population of over six billion persons into one town of 100 people, with all of the existing human ratios remaining the same, there would be:

· 6 American citizens

· These 6 Americans– a mere 6% of the town’s population– would receive 59% of the town’s income.

· This would be the direct result of their controlling over half of the town’s available material resources.

· The 6 Americans would have an average life expectancy of 70 years.

· The other 94 would have an average life expectancy of less than 40 years.

· The lowest income group among the Americans, even though it included a number of people who were hungry much of the time, would be better off by far than the average of the other townspeople.

Scenario II: In this village of precisely 100 people, with all of the existing human ratios remaining the same, there would be:

57 Asians

21 Europeans

14 from the Western Hemisphere, both North and South

8 Africans

52 would be female

48 would be male

70 would be non-white

30 would be white

70 would be non-Christian

30 would be Christian

89 would be heterosexual

11 would be homosexual

6 people would possess 59% of the entire world’s wealth and all 6 would be from the United States

80 would live in substandard housing

70 would be unable to read

50 would suffer from malnutrition

1 would be near death, 1 would be near birth

1 (yes, only 1) would have a college education

1 would own a computer

Review Questions:

a. Could such a town, in which the 94 non-Americans were quite aware of both the fact and means of the Americans’ advantages, survive?

b. Could the 6 Americans continue to extract the majority of raw materials essential to their own standard of living from the property of the other 94 townspeople?

c. While the 6 Americans were using over half the resources to maintain their own comfort, could they at the same time convince the other 94 to limit their population growth by saying that resources of the town were limited?

d. Would some of the 6 Americans have to become soldiers and would some of their material and human resources have to be devoted to military efforts in order to keep the rest of the town at its present disadvantage?

e. What roles might technology play in this village?

f. Should all of us try to learn more about the have-not nations of this world and become more aware of their importance to our well being?

A. Distribution of Wealth

Divide the class into groups to demonstrate the distribution of wealth of the world with the use of peanuts. This example is based on groups of forty students. Use proportions adjusted to class size.

Region	Number of Students (Based on share of world population)	Number of Peanuts* (Based on GNP)
Asia	24 (60%)	7 (17.5%)
Africa	4 (10%)	1 (2.5%)
USA and Canada	2 (5%)	13 (32.5%)
Latin America	3 (7.5%)	2 (5%)
Western Europe	3 (7.5%)	10 (25%)
Eastern Europe and Russia	4 (10%)	7 (17.5%)

*About 85% of the world’s economic activity (GDP) is controlled by the richest fifth of all people in the world. The total economic activity of the top 200 corporations is nearly twice the amount of the poorest four-fifths, or 4.5 billion people. While incomes have increased over the past forty years, the relative positions of people in dollar-rich versus dollar-poor countries remains the same. Currently, over 50% of the world has an income of $300.00 or less per capita per year.

Ask the students how they feel about the distribution of “wealth.”

a. Is it just?

b. Should it be changed?

c. If so, how might you change it?

d. Have you ever experienced a similar situation where something was distributed so unevenly? What did you do?

e. What roles does technology play in distributions of wealth?

B. Purchasing Power

Now with the class divided, demonstrate the global purchasing power of these regions of the world, using peanuts again. This example is also based on a class size of forty students so adjust accordingly.

Region	Number of Students (Based on share of world population)	Purchasing Power (Based on “real” GNP)
Asia	24 (60%)	11 (27%)
Africa	4 (10%)	1 (2%)
USA and Canada	2 (5%)	13 (33%)
Latin America	3 (7.5%)	3 (7%)
Western Europe	3 (7.5%)	9 (22%)
Eastern Europe and Russia	4 (10%)	4 (10%)

Ask the students how they now feel about their global purchasing power (Ask the previous questions, and add):

f. What can be done with “surplus” goods and services (peanuts)?

g. What ought to be done?

h. What roles might technology play in this scenario?

i. What if more than food (peanuts) are needed or desired?

Activity #2: Appropriating and Globalizing Technology— Labels, Labor and Shoes

Context

Shoes have for some time, been an important part of the total fashion outfit for teens and older adults. “Ath-leisure” fashion has been a hot trend over the past three decades, Companies such as Nike are prospering within this larger revolution against formality in dress codes. Coolness and rebellion are connected to hats, shirts, or shoes with Freshjive, Nike, Quicksilver and other labels. Wearing a brand label is now the fashion norm in countries like Canada and the USA. The average person remains unaware of the practices of global companies and the harsh conditions under which laborers produce branded clothes or shoes.

Problem

Design and construct an “appropriate” pair of shoes (cross trainers).

Design Constraints

· The shoes can be any size and must be cross trainers.

· One pair of cross trainers must be constructed.

· There is no constraint on cost of new materials, but: a) you must account for all money spent, and b) you must provide details for the resource stream of the materials you purchase.

· Must use recycled soles.

· Uppers must be assembled from pieces.

· Must not involve offensive labels.

· Must not include dangerous materials.

· Must be a design that is original (but can be modeled after big name brands).

· Must be accompanied by a “Labor Behind the Label” report.

Design Considerations

· Pay close attention to form of materials, economy, ecology, simplicity, and unity.

· Ductility and durability are important considerations for materials.

· Consider the parts that can be made by machine and parts that will be assembled by hand.

· Ecology and economics are more important than style.

· The designs of DC, Etnies, Nike, and Vans are good examples, but do not design an identical duplicate of these.

· For design of shoes and Labor Behind the Label report, use information on advertising, labor, and production practices of Nike (see web sites on Nike practices and child labor: Labor Links: http://www.ufcw.ca/pubs/clabour/links.htm, UNICEF: http://www.unicef.org, Clean Clothes: http://www.cleanclothes.org/, Campaign for Labor Rights: http://www.summersault.com/~agj/clr/, Corporate Watch: http://www.corpwatch.org)

Construction Sequence

· Collect information on shoe designs.

· Sketch your designs and choose appropriate forms, materials and patterns.

· May use 2D computer aided design (CAD) techniques to lay out patterns.

· May use 3D CAD to work out details of color and form.

· Locate recycled materials or new materials.

· Cut materials to forms on patterns.

· Use glue to temporarily hold pieces together for assembly.

· Final assembly.

Management Issues

· End of Day 2 or 3: Approval of design sketches.

· End of Day 4 or 5: Approval of forms, materials and patterns.

· End of Day 10: Submit “Labor Behind the Label” report.

· End of Day 16: Submit finished shoes.

Related Studies

· Accounting

· Home economics

· Materials science

· Social Studies

Review Questions:

1. (To be answered in Labor Behind the Label report)

2. If you were going to produce 10,000 pairs of your shoes, how will your company plan deal with labor and technology?

3. How will you manage profits to sustain your business? Provide a spread sheet to explain the "costs" of producing your shoes.

4. Should you try to get the lowest wages, cheapest working conditions and lowest standards of employment you can or are there other considerations?

5. What will you do about wages? Lowest possible or minimum, "fair" standard? Explain.

6. What about working conditions such as hours per day, length of work week, benefits, etc.?

7. Will you employ appropriate technology or try to automate as much as possible?

8. What about worker safety?

9. What about taxes?

10. What will be the minimum working age?

11. What about unions?

Honest Self (Group) Evaluation

1. We stayed within the design constraints and deadlines	______ out of 5 marks
2. Our shoes are unique in their design	______ out of 5 marks
3. Our shoes have design features that are improvements over existing designs	______ out of 5 marks
4. The materials used are local and recycled	______ out of 5 marks
5. Our use of materials was economic and efficient	______ out of 5 marks
6. Our shoes can be reproduced by people working for fair wages under healthy conditions (Labor Behind the Label report)	______ out of 5 marks
7. Our report explains how the design and production of Our shoes is an improvement over practices of big name brands	______ out of 5 marks
Total	______ out of 35

Assessment

Group’s Self Assessment	________ Total/ 35
Design Principles
Features and Form	________ out of 10
Originality	________ out of 10
Economics and Ecology	________ out of 10
Craft and Quality	________ out of 10
Labor Behind the Label report	________ out of 15
Deadlines, Safety and Participation	________ out of 10
Total	________ out of 100

Curriculum Resources for Global Economics (for Teachers)

Child Labour: Costly at Any Price Co Development Canada 205 2929 Commercial Drive Vancouver BC V5N 4C8 Phone: 604-708-1495 Fax: 604-708-1497 Email: codev@web.net	Child Labor: ILO Kids US International Labor Organization http://us.ilo.org/ilokids/
Global Sweatshop Curriculum Packet Campaign for Labor Rights 1247 “E” Street, SE Washington DC, 20003 Phone: 541-344-5410 Email: clr@igc.apc.org http://www.summersault.com/~agj/clr/	Learning Materials for Your Classroom: Development Education Program Getting Down To Data World Bank http://www.worldbank.org/html/schools/
Next Steps in Global Education The American Forum for Global Education 120 Wall Street, Suite 2600 New York, NY 10005 Phone: 1-800-813-5056 Fax: (212) 624-1412 http://www.globaled.org/order.html	The Paper Trail: Connecting Economic and Natural Systems Sustainability Education Center, The American Forum for Global Education 120 Wall Street, Suite 2600, New York, NY 10005 Tel: 212-624-1300 Fax: 212-624-1412 Email: globed120@aol.com http://www.globaled.org/sustain/sustain.html
United Food and Commercial Worker Union Child Labor Links http://www.ufcw.ca/pubs/clabour/links.htm	Wear Fair Action Kit Labour Behind the Label Coalition 606 Shaw Street Toronto, ON M6G 3L6 Phone: 416-532-8584 Fax: 416-532-7688 Email: perg@web.net http://www.web.net/~msn/5cats.htm

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Chapter 3

Ramifications of Failure to Use Appropriate Technology

Charles H. McLaughlin, Jr.

Rhode Island College

Providence, Rhode Island

This chapter will review the impacts of failing to use appropriate technologies, resulting in challenging problems related to land use and fisheries exploitation. Appropriate technology (AT) should be a participatory experience for all project members. The applications of appropriate technology must invite innovative and diffuse solutions to problems if it is to succeed in complex working environments. These answers usually lie within the members of the local community.

The idea of AT is often married to the notion that it is a Third World agenda or a second best solution. Arguably, attitudes toward AT may prevent the incorporation of technologies--those which are not high tech--into the lives of the people who could benefit from their development and use. Additionally, attitudes held by a nation’s leaders may prevent the implementation of appropriate technology projects. Unfortunately, AT often carries a connotation that it is a poor substitute for high tech or more sophisticated technologies. The modern industrial mega-complex has become the measure of wealth and prosperity in most countries. The standards set by industrialized nations are typically well beyond the capabilities of most developing countries. Developing nations can not follow the same path to economic and industrial growth as the more developed nations have done in the past. They must create their own models of sustainability which by-pass environmental degradation and systems inefficiency.

Most of the developing countries and the newly industrialized countries have resource based economies. This means that the economic survival of each of these nations depends upon their stocks of environmental capital: soils, fossil fuels, forest, fisheries, livestock, minerals, etc. Developing nations’ economic solvency depends on maintaining those stocks and even increasing them. However, over the last several decades, developing nations have lost control their own natural resources and must rely on the resources of other nations to maintain their standard of living and development. If industrialized countries should move to more sustainable patterns of consumption and production, then the economies of developing nations may be adversely impacted because the commodities on which these economies depend will no longer be needed to the extent of their previous consumption levels. It is a tangled web! Strong (1993) noted that both capital and technology could be the principal engines toward sustainability, but another overlooked resource must be considered. He wrote,

... both of these essential economic fuels are in short supply in developing countries, so it is imperative for them to use their scarce capital and technology in ways that take advantage of their main resource, which is people. (p.6)

Ideally, the industrialized world could share its technical resources, and improved sustainable technologies with developing countries. The nations of the earth must become aware of their responsibility to one another. Certainly, the prosperity of countries is interrelated and depends upon the earth’s ability to provide food and resources for all people. Therefore, it is in the best interest of all nations to undertake measures to improve the economic conditions and food security of developing nations. Growth in developing nations could be based on development processes which protect rather than undermine environmental resources and provide a way out of poverty. Such initiatives would require broad integrative approaches to be successful for both the industrialized and the developing countries. Toledo (1997) suggests, “. . . a new strategy of sustainable development at the community level can be converted into appropriate options for rural modernization based on the evolution--not substitution--of peasant practices and the adequate management of material resources” (p.248). However, self-reliance gained by sustainable development must be achieved in a way that communities take control of the processes that local people encounter during daily life.

Appropriate technology benefits society because it fosters self-reliance and responsibility. Use of appropriate technology brings with it a sense of control. Communities which become involved in appropriate technology projects can decide if the introduction of new technologies will benefit each member and will match local conditions. Appropriate technology provides education, skills, jobs, goods, and services for a wider societal cross section than high technology. Hazeltine and Bull (1999) noted, “If technology only slightly different from that existing is introduced, for instance, an improved farming method, even those not directly involved with the new method can learn about it. More people would therefore benefit from the improvement” (p.6). Appropriate technology is less disruptive to the populace than the introduction of new high technology, because it is normally based on existing technology people are familiar with. At the national level, AT may provide the very impetus necessary to bring some measure of industrialization to Third World nations, without the ubiquitous high-technology and monetary handouts from more affluent nations. In its broadest sense, AT provides an alternate route to economic development.

Successful AT projects have at their core an orientation toward initiative and self-reliance, popular participation, local leadership, and decentralization of authority (Bush, 1994; UNESCO, 1981). A primary consideration of successful development interventions is that the users, “beneficiaries,” should decide what technologies are appropriate and more likely to meet their needs. At the time E.F. Shumacker wrote Small is Beautiful (1973), he identified Intermediate Technology as a panacea for unemployment. Twenty-seven years later, much has changed, including the view of AT and its wider applications in developmental thinking (Scott, 1996). While technology was the impetus for change, more recently AT organizations have shifted their emphasis to developing the technological capabilities of those people they assist.

Few movements have played as important a role in the emergence of technological innovation in developing nations as appropriate technology. The AT movement has also contributed to, “ . . . new ideas and values, it helped create a new social demand for different types of technology, and this demand in turn is beginning to have a major impact on the technological system” (Jéquier, 1983, p.4). So with all its apparent benefits, what are the impacts from failing to use appropriate technology?

This chapter will explore the problems associated with the failure to develop and use appropriate technology to create desired outcomes of economic, social, and resource stability. Examples from both developing and industrialized nations will be utilized to demonstrate the delicate balance between technological self-sufficiency and the uncertainty of modernized development.

Participation: The Key to Implementing Appropriate Technology

The history of development assistance (e.g., United States Aid for International Development - USAID) is littered with the machines and technologies of good intention. In many development assistance cases, the selection of technological equipment for the international community was made by external agents with minimal knowledge of the local culture or environment. A prevailing philosophy within AT programs recommends participation and choice by the end-users, the local community members. A variety of AT devices should be made available for the end-users, so the most suitable one will be chosen and used in the community. Acceptance of appropriate technologies fails when development strategies are often foisted onto a community rather than introduced in a side-by-side, collaborative relationship.

Appropriate technology must match the end-user in both scale and complexity. Hazeltine and Bull (1999) related the story of an African community that was the beneficiary of ten modern combines that would be used to harvest grain. The aid project did not provide training of mechanics or the spare parts necessary to maintain these farm production machines. The combines rest, rusting, at the edge of the fields as the farmers use traditional methods to harvest their crop. Simply put, “What we have here is failure to communicate.” The external organization “knew better” than the community what the local needs were. This is a trap that many well intentioned organizations find themselves creating.

During another intervention by an external aid organization, wood stoves were designed with the sole intent of providing energy efficient cooking facilities. The end users attached greater priority on cooking time, smoke emissions, and space heating. The main reason for the stoves' failure to attract users was that no one within the assistant agency took into consideration the needs and priorities of the people who would actual use the stoves.

Grace and Arnoux (1998), proponents of approaches meeting local needs and global sustainability, advocated the use of locally produced biomass fuels. Communities would replace fossil fuels with renewable biomass resources. “Most discussions of improved stove programs are invariably premised on an assumption that users are destined to progress up the ‘energy ladder’ from biomass fuels to ‘modern fuels’ such as, kerosene, LPG gas, and finally electricity” (Grace and Arnoux, p.265). Success for programs such as these are tied directly to the knowledge of local women as the providers of fuels for household activities. Grace and Arnoux suggested women become part of the process, including production of the biomass fuels. Such a program places women in a position to control many aspects of a required resource. The other option is to use non-sustainable, polluting fossil fuels that are expensive or to burn fuel wood exposing women to high levels of CO², and the burdensome chore of searching for and collecting fuelwood.

The benefits of local participation in design and construction of AT devices are numerous. However, a community's failure to use AT is often related to the degree of participation by the local people. Without participation, most projects are doomed to failure. Worse, technical choices can be made by politicians, managers, and other administrators who may not know or understand the subtle issues within the culture that are essential for design, implementation, and utilization. While these individuals may have the best interests of the people in mind, they may not fully understand the complexity of implementing simple AT projects. Here again is the problem where leaders forgo practical projects in favor of those which have an appearance of complexity. History has demonstrated, projects imposed by external authorities do not fare well because the goals often do not match the needs of the community. It is also difficult to inspire loyalty by the end-users for a project when the responsibility for decisions has been given to one or several people who are outside of the local community population. The issue of external decision making becomes even more problematic when imported foreign products and machinery are necessary to implement a project of any scale.

Several developing nations have mounted efforts to create affordable power supplies for their citizens. With the expected tripling of CO² levels by 2025, it seems reasonable that such enterprises would be supported by more industrialized nations. This has not been the case. Many of the locally planned power systems in countries like Peru, Sri Lanka, China, and Nepal have been suspended in favor of large scale power systems (Holland, 1993). The investment in and use of foreign materials, resources, and machines requires these countries to commit important monetary resources toward the purchase of equipment, skills, and fuel from outside their borders. Such project do little to improve the lives of the majority, since few rural communities have the infrastructure or hope to connect to the energy grid. Large foreign projects often impede development because they siphon off money, jobs, and other opportunities for the very people the project is supposed to help.

Developing countries need to foster their own technological and scientific capabilities, or they may find themselves in a weaker economic position and may actually impede their own development. It is for this reason that participation, especially by end users, must become the paramount process for AT to succeed. All stake holders must recognize the importance of the “people’s technology”. The input of local farmers, artisans, and potential users is central to the success of AT. Should their contributions be ignored, failure becomes certain.

Land Use and AT

Agriculture systems throughout the world vary in size from the one-plot subsistence farms to the industrial, multi-acre farm. Their individual sizes can not distract from the fact that their purpose is to provide food. There is a problem, though, which is as old as agriculture itself; that is, that food demand will increase as the population on Earth grows, and there will be an unprecedented need for more varieties of food in the near future. In previous eras, the loss of crop land could be easily rectified. Adjacent lands were cleared of vegetation or nearby forests were cut down. However, many industrialized countries no longer have the luxury of expanding their farming enterprises. Most, if not all, of the arable land is in use. In many developing nations, marginal and semi-arid tracts of land are available, but the tenuous nature of climate and rain make cultivation a risky proposition.

In developing countries, 1.4 billion people rely on subsistence farming (Nebel & Wright, 1998). A typical subsistence farm includes a small parcel of land for growing food, and maintains a few farm animals--chicken, goats, and perhaps a few head of cattle. Subsistence farming is extremely labor intensive and is often hindered because it is practiced on marginal land; the only kind these farmers can afford. The practices defy sustainability as woodlands and forest are cleared exposing soils to the elements. Erosion generally follows if ground cover is not replaced.

In the United States, large planting fields of the same crop, called monocultures, require heavy mechanization, large tracts of land, and large sums of money. Machines and fossil fuels replace human muscle power and beasts of burden. Unlike other types of farming, only one crop is grown making equipment changes during harvesting unnecessary. Modern farmers avoid planting plots of land with crops of different varieties because it reduces the efficiency of farming.

There are serious drawbacks to monoculture farming. For instance, if every country were to farm as intensely as in the United States, it is estimated that the known oil reserves would become depleted in 12 years (Bush, 1997). Not only is fossil fuel required to run farm equipment, but is essential for manufacturing pesticides and fertilizer. These chemicals do the work that humans would to cultivate the crop. The are a very costly alternative to pest prevention and nutrient replenishment. The backlash to this type of farming can be seen in consumers’ demand for produce which has been treated with little or no chemicals.

A popular farming method in developing nations with low density populations and poor soil is slash-and-burn agriculture. Small sections of forest are cut and burned to release their nutrients into the soil. Typically, the small plots support a variety of plants, not just one species of crop. Beans and shade plants share the plot because of the beneficial aspects they possess. The mixing of species also prevents the loss of the whole endeavor from pest infestation. The characteristics of some plants allow them to repel nuisance insects from the plot. It is an ingenious form of agriculture, but is not effective over large areas. Crops may be cultivated for several years, until the soil nutrients are spent. Once this occurs, the process of slashing-and-burning is repeated, if land is available.

Agricultural development in the marginal and semi-arid lands of many developing nations requires efficient technology transfer systems for the benefit of all levels of farming. Research efforts must support innovations which enhance a nation’s resources, rather than overtly exploit them. The applications of research needs to involve managers and end-users during survey trials. The introduction of all new technology must be facilitated through specialized workshops. Too often end-users are left to their own device to determine proper and safe use of equipment. Farm machinery must be made adaptable to a variety of conditions, and ideally should be developed by the users. This dispels the notion that, “Most third world or developing countries, thought that they could be consumers of technologies while the developed world would generate technologies for them” (Agboola and Tijani-Eniola, 1991, p.54). Serious efforts must be made to assure appropriate agricultural technologies reach the largest number of people possible. This stimulates diffusion to quarters of the farming population not reached by community programs and may stimulate innovation beyond the locale that implemented the project.

The use modern farming practices, rather than appropriate technology, in developing nations began in the 1960s. The results have been mixed. The Green Revolution hoped to improve crop production and agricultural practices in developing countries. These assistance programs brought “temperate zone technology” which worked well in the industrialized nations. The consequences for developing nations were crop failure due to tropical temperatures and climate, dispersion of pesticides and fertilizers during monsoon events, and the inability of crops to withstand pestilence. During drought, some farmers had to eat the seeds they intended to plant in order to survive (Boyle, 1994). And, as a result of planting and developing “foreign” seeds, many of the local varieties were lost. In many cases, assistance agencies promoted the use of non-native seeds without consulting communities about their crop preference (Boyle, 1994).

Attempts to plant monoculture crops have had a tremendous impact on rural communities. Banking on one crop brought with it a multitude of problems. For instance, when aggressive pest infestation took place, the entire crop was lost. Specific traits within the plant species were lost as communities resorted to planting simple rotations of a crop. The demand for fertilizer, often very expensive in developing nations, prohibited growth in crop lands because essential nutrients were removed from the soil. Many early planted crops relied on the plant residue from the previous cultivation. In semi-arid zones, residue is often grazed on by livestock or burned accidentally. Even more commonplace is the over-application of soil-active herbicides. These chemicals are meant to destroy weeds which inhibit plant growth; if applied improperly, they will destroy the crop itself. In most cases the land ultimately succumbs to erosion.

Better animal husbandry practices, in conjunction with agricultural development have a critical place in the survival of humans in marginal areas. Cunningham and Saigo (1999) noted a study by the U.S. National Academy of Sciences which concluded, “the semi-arid lands of the African Sahel can support only 20-28kg (44 to 62 lbs) of cattle per hectare but can produce nearly three times as much meat from wild ungulates (hooved mammals) in the same area” (p. 308). The competition to support both animal and crop land also minimizes productivity. Grazing animals often select the most palatable grasses, leaving barren niches for opportunistic weeds or other undesirable plants to fill. Erosion fields are created as these same animals pulverize the soils. Either one of these accidental disruptions to the soil will degrade the capacity to cultivate, but combined, they create soil erosion problems which occur very quickly threatening the farmers’ hard-won niche.

Social problems related to farmers classifications are common in developing nations. Farm classifications based on land holdings are as follows: marginal, poor, medium, and rich (Abedin, A.& Chowdhury, M., 1985). Technologies brought into the community have been accepted or rejected as a result of classification. There are many incidences of the acceptance of a technology which benefits a few community members because of class rank. To avoid this scenario, it is paramount that the farmers, who are at the epicenter of agricultural activities, provide their input and opinions as equals during selection of materials, technologies, and agricultural practices. The entire community needs to participate when new techniques require training. Every resource should be made available to every farmer for new and improved seeds, as well as, the pesticides and fertilizer needed to insure good productivity which creates security in the community (Bush, 1997). Certainly, the intent is to place these advantages into the hands of as many farmers as possible, not just the richest members of the agricultural community.

The impact of land degradation has caused entire agrarian communities to move into less desirable areas. These migrations cause economic and cultural disruptions. Particularly insidious is the loss of traditional homeland to erosion, desertification, and deforestation. These losses could be avoided with the use of proper resource management techniques and appropriate technology. Often, the actions of the people near resources such as a forest cause disruptions out of need to survive rather than for economic reasons. Serageldin (1993) eloquently stated:

To outsiders, it appears to be as illogical to cut a tree that produces needed food, fibers, or medicines as it is to consume the seeds for next year’s crop--illogical, that is, unless survival today is dependent on selecting that option. In most cases, the peasant farmer who cut and burn forest do it out of urgent need--not out of malice, profit, or ignorance (p.8-9).

In Nigeria, for example, the forests contribute to the overall well-being of those who live near them. The forests act as an environmental buffer and regulate local and regional climate somewhat. Forests provide huge amounts of goods and other benefits. Unfortunately, some areas are being used to extinction. Deforestation has become a major threat to global environments because huge tracts of forest are removed for short-term purposes. As African populations increase, the forests are turned to for space and materials. “. . . clearing forests to support agriculture and to meet the needs of a rapidly expanding population is the main reason for deforestation” (Serageldin, p.8). Once cleared of its cover, the area may be inhabited by people in search of their own tracts of land on which they farm. The exploitation of forests for logging promotes two problems. First, the trees are harvested for export, then farmers take over the clearings to create subsistence farms. These new forest farmers, by far and away, have the greatest impact, “creating an environmental problem attributed to the intense demands on sparsely vegetated lands” (Okafor 1988, p.153). The infertile soils loose their nutrients making the land useless for cultivation. After this occurs, the farmer must seek out another plot; and the cycle begins again. A problem which has continued to plague forest managers in the tropics is the accidental or intentional introduction of non-native species of plants. These opportunistic species have few competitors in the forest clearings and other marginal lands. Without natural enemies, they may over-grow and prevent native plant species from flourishing. Egunjobi (1993) estimated that Nigeria alone destroys about 600,000 hectares of forest each year; only 25,000 hectares are replenished.

Another troubling impact of deforestation places a burden on domestic life. Nebel and Wright (1998) reported that 3 billion people, 60% of the world’s population rely on firewood to complete domestic chores. The exploitation of forests has made the work of collecting firewood, a job usually performed by women, even more burdensome. As the forests are cut back, the trip to and from home gets longer and more arduous. In the tropics, government forest departments have attempted to exclude local populations from forest areas. This has often created intense conflicts placing local residents, who collect fuelwood and fodder, in direct opposition with the government’s wishes to protect the forests for timber sales (Shepard & Stewart, 1998).

With deforestation comes another land use problem. Although its onset is usually associated with climate change and over-use of soil, desertification can begin with the loss of forests. The mechanics of desertification can be confounding. The persistent occurrence of drought in areas of marginal land subjects inhabitants to psychological and socio-economic stresses and the soils to utter uselessness. The process of desertification, when natural and human intervention create changes which disrupt vegetative growth, impacts stability and development, and reduces an region’s carrying capacity.

The reduction of land to an infertile state, desertification is a consequence of losing the organic components of soil. The resulting soil is sandy, does not return water, and is liable to blow or wash away (Bush, 1997). The desertification of areas is the Sub-Sahara Africa are the result of both intervention by human activity and natural events. The Sahel is a band of dry grasslands which stretch across Sub-Sahara Africa. Close to 50 million subsistence farmers and their families live in the area. The region has been plagued with a series of droughts since 1967. While there has been enough water in the form of rain, to support the grasslands, there has been little to support agricultural practices. Soils in this region are the most sensitive to change and rarely produce crops with frequency. With few available technologies, the people of the Sahel live a nomadic existence. Still, some groups attempt subsistence farming or become pastoralists. The expanding population in the Sahel has caused unsound agricultural practices and over-grazing to become commonplace. Ashby (1994) reported, “The drought of 1983 caused record crop and livestock losses and triggered significant migration of cultivators and pastoralists across state and international boundaries” (p.30). The refugees were in search of water and food. The influx of people into regions already inhabited created great stress on the environment. There was a tremendous migration to urban areas which challenged the capacities of all services. Simply put, the drought disaster had become a crucible for human suffering, the likes of which had never been seen. Famine and armed conflict soon followed as the resources of one country were usurped by citizens from another. The political instability created threats to economic and agricultural development in the region.

A final example of the impacts from failing to use appropriate technology can be found during a unique project. The World Bank actually paid Latin Americans to clear cut tropical forests. The purpose of this endeavor was to assist beef production for export. The project created low yield cattle estates, which were quite large. Despite the size, cattle ranching requires less labor than other types of agriculture. The World Bank program created a new class of cattle barons. The local inhabitants did not benefit from this project, but were forced onto marginal or less desirable lands. Budowski (1984) remarked,

With better land management techniques, the same land could produce ten, perhaps fifty, times as much food. Instead of being a source of beef for export, it could sustain local families. However, this may not favor the interests of the landowner, and under the prevailing political system, it is almost impossible to change land use patterns. The landowners have a perfect right to use the land as they do under the present constitution. But something is wrong with a system that allows a person not to make the most of his land on a sustained yield basis when there are scores of hungry people in the same region (pp.61-62).

The end result of such projects is displacement of the poor, and perpetuating the cycle of poverty. Projects like that of the World Bank must strengthen local inhabitants’ resolve to use the forest to improve their lives. The use of the forest might have succeeded if the project had been based on ecological and economic concerns of the region’s inhabitants.

Troubled Waters: The Decline of Fisheries

In March of 1954, the British christened the ship that was to change the course of fishing on oceans around the world. The launch of the HMS Fairtry brought about the first distant water factory ship with a self-contained, quick-freezing unit and fish processing machinery. Once the efficiency with which this ship scoured the ocean became known, many oceangoing nations got in line to build replicas.

“They’re fishing in ocean liners!” is the way astounded Canadian and American fishermen who saw these vessels invariably described their arrival. The description is accurate, with only a trace of pardonable exaggeration. Seen from afar, the new ships look very much like passenger liners. And they were big--bigger in length and much bigger in tonnage than any and all fishing vessels that preceded them (Warner, 1984, vii).

While human activity threatens the oceans and the near-shore, the most serious threat to marine life is fishing. By all accounts the major fishing areas in the oceans have reached peak production and are in decline due to over-fishing (McGinn, 1999). The intensity of some fishing efforts can remove up to 90 percent of fish populations in a given year. This dramatically reduces the success of recruitment classes (Safina, 1995). All over the world, fish are taken at a rate faster than populations can reproduce.

The problem of over-fishing is a worldwide problem, not restricted to either industrialized or developing nations. The operation of marine fisheries at present levels can not be sustained, endangering economies and life styles. The best catches were routinely made on fish spawning grounds. For that reason, fishing trips by the great fleets of Spain, Portugal, America, Canada, United Kingdom, and Germany were scheduled to coincide with the large congregation of spawning fish. The results of the catches were quite dramatic.

The virtual commercial extinction of Northwest Atlantic groundfish--notably cod fish--was considered impossible. Yet, as early as 1970, catches of cod fish had dropped noticeably from previous levels. However, government subsidy programs were established to assist fishermen¹. These subsidies were used to purchase high-technology gear, such as navigation electronics, sonar, and improved nets. The killing got even more efficient. O’Riordan (1994) compared these events to, “having witnessed the Industrial Revolution in global fisheries” (p.15). As a result of the decline, many fishermen sold their equipment or simply did not put out to sea. Still, with fewer boats, catch levels remained respectable. This was accomplished because of technological advancements in fishing equipment. Harris lamented, “We just became too technically competent. We became able to kill too easily. We became able to kill everything” (cited in M. Harris, 1999, p.333).

Efficiency doomed the modern fishing fleets. Ignoring international fishing quotas also helped. The use of cutting edge electronics, ships with spotter planes, drift nets, sonar, and longlines (80 mile long lines of baited hooks) have conspired to destroy fishing stocks. Huge trawl nets have been introduced which, when open, can engulf the equivalent of ten or more jumbo jets (Harris, 1998; Safina, 1995). Coastal nations alarmed by the decline of fish stocks established 200 mile economic zones to protect their remaining biomass. Traditional fishing grounds held since the 16th century were no longer available for foreign exploitation. However, for fish stocks like the groundfish of the Northwest Atlantic, it may be too late to recover. Even with reduced pressure on the fish, they are not returning to the inshore nurseries or even in their mid-water habitats on the great fishing banks of the Atlantic.

Stradling stocks, fish that move in and out of the protected 200 mile limits, are often the source of international confrontation. Coastal nations view these fish as their protected resource and should not be harvested by other nations. A rather dramatic situation occurs when fish migrate to and from protected zones of neighboring countries. For example, in 1997, commercial fishermen from British Columbia blockaded a U.S. ferry in protest of excessive fishing by the Americans. At the heart of this incident was the rule of law governing the catch of the dwindling Sockeye Salmon. However, the disappearance of fish coincides with the loss of their habitats from construction of dams and hydro electric projects, poor forest and watershed management, and urbanization of pristine areas. Protecting home waters has degenerated into one country’s navy firing upon another country’s fishing vessel. There is a lot at stake to preserve the fisheries around the globe.

Many coastal developing nations have benefited from the global strife related to fishing. They have learned the lessons of the global community; to develop fishing resources requires management. Over the last twenty years, a number of regional fisheries development organizations have emerged. These organizations were charged with providing assistance to individual fishermen, their communities, and to a greater extent developing countries. The goal was to prevent over exploitation of valuable sources of protein. However, many developing nations must export large portions of their catch to the industrialized nations who sponsored the upgrade of home fishing fleets. Under the guise of creating foreign exchange, there has been a dramatic transfer of much needed protein from poor countries to their rich benefactors.

Fisheries in developing nations’ coastal zones have been a consistent employer. There are 21 million individuals worldwide who identify themselves as fishermen (McGinn, 1998). Worldwide, over 200 million people derive their income from fishing interests. While fisheries contribute a small portion to the economic standing of communities, it does provide stable employment and food security. McGinn (1998) related the following: “More than half the fish eaten today came from inshore and coastal areas that are dominated by more than 19 million small- and medium-scale fishers who are officially counted in FAO statistics.” How is it that fisheries can sustain this many people? The answer is, scale of the effort. Most subsistence fishermen use hook and line gear to land their fish. This technique produces better quality fish than trapping or netting fish. This simple technique also reduces the amount of by-catch that industrial type fishing is noted for. Artisan fishermen use canoes, sailing boats, and most recently motor powered craft. The majority of fishermen in the world are artisan fishermen. What they lack in technology, they make up in sheer strength of numbers. They harvest up to 90 percent of the daily catch, most of which is directly consumed by the communities they live in. Almost all of the fishing takes place near shore.

However, looming not far offshore, large mechanized fleets have secured the rights to fish in waters of many cash strapped coastal nations. Not surprisingly, these fleets represent the countries who fished out the world’s premier fishing grounds. Should events repeat themselves in Southern waters, the tragedy would be two-fold: the loss of irreplaceable protein and the decimation of valuable fish stocks.

Lately, traditional fishermen have been afforded the opportunity to participate in development which will increase their catch and improve catch quality. Coastal nations’ governments recognize that artisan fishermen have intimate knowledge of the resource, the areas where fish spawn, and other migratory habits. With this in mind, measures to ensure protection of fishing areas have been established. Small scale fishermen have assisted in the determination of limits on commercial fishing interests, licenses, catch and by-catch quotas, and vessel size limitations. Recognizing the low impact of artisan fishing, they are rewarded with protection measures and extended seasons, while the mechanized fleets await seasonal quotas.

Technology Education and Appropriate Technology

The infusion of AT into technology education makes good curricular and pedagogical sense. Appropriate technology provides students with opportunities to engage in solving problems with a real human dimension. However, the discussion of solutions to problems which relate to real world problems can not take place when the solutions are firmly rooted in the traditions of industrialization which ignore the customs and culture of others. Without AT infusion, students may not develop values and broaden their perspectives of the world beyond their school and community. Participation in activities which support AT development demonstrate to students the importance of culture of other people and people groups, unlike the many rote activities used in contemporary technology education. Appropriate technology activities give students the opportunity to study other cultures and the contexts for their technology. There are few occasions for this to occur in the “New Basic”. Certainly, AT exploration gives technology education a more meaningful and global perspective, which it currently lacks. A feature of AT is that it illuminates the widening gap between rich and poor countries as well as the gaps within their own nation. While industrialization and global competition are viewed as the driving forces of the technological elite, many developing nations have the untapped potential to meet or exceed the standards set by wealthier nations.

Technology education’s students should be made aware of how technological problem solving involves many aspects that go beyond technical procedures and equipment. Students need to learn that technology must fit within the context of culture for it to be successful. Students should learn that all problems need not have their answers embedded in high technology; a simple solution might be the best solution. For instance, development problems requiring the use of appropriate technology might require a simple solution. By avoiding AT development, and heading for high technology, students miss the chance to learn about technological development, evolution of a device, and the influences of technological change. Creating a simple innovation may be as complex and challenging as producing a high technology device which has little chance of diffusion within a community. AT problems, long ignored by the confederation of technology educators, allow students to engage in poignant exercises which provide the means to satisfy basic human needs, not the luxuries that accompany mass consumerism. Where in the technology education curriculum reside the concerns for the problems of poverty, social change, the betterment of the human condition, economic development, employment, self-reliance, and self sufficiency? Providing students with ways to study these important facets of AT affords them perspectives unlike those framed by life in an industrialized country. Technology education can be improved by using AT to build upon the cultural constraints which have shaped the many traditional communities in developing nations and modern societies, too. Such experiences create new world views and improvements in the application of knowledge.

Appropriate technology permits the use of the world community as a resource and training ground. The unique global experiences are radically different from the process oriented technology education laboratory. The community is transformed into a learning laboratory with real people, real opportunities, and real resources. Underlying the use of the community is the development of students who become actively engaged in their education, who are no longer challenged by artificial constraints of the technology education classroom, and who respect the diversity of other people. This becomes possible when lessons include “people’s technology.”

The use of AT has inherent risks. To study AT and the people who benefit from it requires novel approaches not yet accepted by technology educators. Provided with proper guidance, students can develop an awareness of their abilities to solve technical problems. They can learn the requirements of scale to solve local problems. With the use of appropriate technology in the classroom, technology education can become World Class Education.

Review Questions

1. a. Competition for water is often a source of problems for dwellers of semi-arid lands, especially when rainfall is erratic. What alternative sources could be developed to provide water for both humans and their animals during dry or drought-like conditions?

b. Your community’s water supply has become polluted. The situation requires each home to develop a plan to supply its own water for one week. Create a plan to provide your home with water for one week.

2. Nomads and pastoralists move about to ensure that they and their animals have enough food to eat. During their migrations, seeds from species other than those that inhabit the soil are introduced. What impact will this have on the region?

3. Monoculture farming is practiced on large tracts of land. Could this form of agriculture take place in your community? What kind of crops are grown?

4. Locate historic evidence of groundfishing in the Northwest Atlantic. How long was the fishing sustainable? What were the technologies which led to its ultimate extinction?

5. How would you define inappropriate technologies? What factors make them inappropriate?

End Note:

1. The term fisherman is used throughout. The term “fisher” is used by academics for gender--neutral purposes. The word “fisher” is widely disapproved of by those who work and live in the fishing community. See Greenlaw, L. (1999). The Hungry Ocean: A Swordfish Captain’s Journey, p.51. Also see, Harris, M. (1999). Lament for an Ocean, p.367, for discussion regarding this term.

The author would like to acknowledge the contributions of Dr. Rex Kanu, Ball State University, in the preparation of this manuscript.

References

Abedin, A. and Chowdhury, M. (1985). The design of technologies in farming systems research. Appropriate Technology, 11(4),15 - 16.

Agboola, A. and Tijani-Eniola. (1991). Appropriate technology generation for small scale farmers in Nigeria. In, J.O. Olukosi, A.O. Ogungbile, and B.A. Kalu (Eds.) Appropriate Technologies for Resource - Poor Farmers. Ibadan: National Farming Systems Research Network. 53 - 61.

Boyle, D. (1994). More growers but less choice. IT News. Appropriate Technology, 21(3), 4.

Budowski, G. (1984). Sustainable use of species in ecosystems. In F. Thibodeau and H. Field (Eds.) Sustaining Tomorrow: A Strategy for World Conservation and Development. Hanover, NH: University Press of New England. 56 - 65.

Bush, A. (1994). Developing communities. Appropriate Technology, 21(3), 1- 3.

Bush, M. (1997). Ecology of a Changing Planet. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Cunningham, W., and Saigo, B. (1999). Environmental Science: A Global Concern. NY, NY: McGraw Hill.

Egunjobi, L. (1993). Issues in environmental management for sustainable development in Nigeria. The Environmentalist, 13(1), 33 - 40.

Grace, V., and Arnoux, L. (1998). Clean-burning fuel for use in woodstoves: feminist politics, community development and global sustainability. Community Development Journal, 33(3), 260 - 269.

Harris, M. (1999). Lament for an Ocean. Toronto, Ontario: Mclelland and Stewart, Inc.

Hazeltine, B., and Bull, C. (1999). Appropriate Technology: Tools, Choices, and Implications. NY, NY: Academic Press

Holland, R. (1993). Let the user be the chooser. Appropriate Technology, 20(3), 1- 3.

Jéquier, N. (1983). Small is beautiful ...and getting big. Appropriate Technology, 10(3), 1- 4.

McGinn, A.P. (1998). Rocking the Boat: Conserving Fisheries and Protecting Jobs. Worldwatch Paper 142. Washington, D.C.: Worldwatch Institute.

McGinn, A.P. (1999). Safeguarding the Health of the Oceans. Worldwatch Paper 145. Washington, D.C.: Worldwatch Institute.

Nebel, B. & Wright, R. (1998). Environmental Science. Upper Saddle, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Okafor, F. (1988). Development and the environment. In P. Sada and F. Odemerho (Eds.) Environmental Issues and Management in Nigerian Development. Ibadan, Nigeria: Nigeria Publishers.

O’Riordan, B. (1994). The right to fish. Appropriate Technology, 21(3), 15.

Safina, C. (1995). The world’s imperiled fish. Scientific American, 273(5), 46-53.

Scott, A. (1996). Appropriate technology: Is it ready for - and relevant for - the Millennium? Appropriate Technology, 23(3), 1- 4.

Serageldin, I. (1993). Saving Africa’s Rainforest. Washington, D.C.: Environmentally Sustainable Development, World Bank.

Shepard, G. and Stewart, J. (1988). Poor people’s forestry. Appropriate Technology, 15(1), 1- 4.

Strong, M. (1993). The road from Rio. The Bridge, 23(2), 3 - 7.

Toledo, V. (1997). Sustainable development at the village community level: A third world perspective. In, Fraser Smith (Ed.) Environmental Sustainability: Political Global Implications. Boca Raton, FL: St Lucie Press. pp. 223 - 250.

UNESCO. (1981). Technologies for Rural Development: Based on an Expert Meeting on New Modalities for the Action of Unesco in the field of Technologies for Rural Development. Paris, France: Unesco Press.

Warner, W. (1984). Distant Water: The Fate of the North Atlantic Fisherman. NY, NY: Penguin Books.

Chapter 4

Moral and Ethical Issues Related to Appropriate Technology

Roger B. Hill & Garner Dewey

The University of Georgia

Athens, Georgia

The issue of moral and ethical behavior is a topic of considerable discussion as the dawn of a new century begins. Perhaps due to the failure of society to successfully master the desirable characteristics espoused by civilized peoples throughout history, people frequently express concern about declining integrity and decaying ethical standards. In this, as in so many areas of societal concern, educators are increasingly expected to address the moral and ethical development of their students.

Numerous educational initiatives, reports, and goal statements have endorsed moral and ethical development as an outcome of school activities (Beach, 1991; Lankard, 1990; Noddings, 1991; Secretary's Commission on Achieving Necessary Skills, 1992). Often this is in the form of a general goal statement, as is the case for vocational education and technology education. In other instances, a more specific initiative to address this area is included in either programs of study or extracurricular activities. For example, a Milwaukee high school has implemented a Career Pathways program for all students to that includes a required work ethic component (Hill & Womble, 1997). All students participate in a unit of instruction that emphasizes the importance of initiative, interpersonal skills and being dependable. Components included in this program also stress development of integrity, responsibility, and consideration of others.

The recently developed national standards for technology education (International Technology Education Association, 2000) address moral and ethical behavior in grades as early as K-2 under standard number 13, to assess the impact of products and systems. The content standards in this section call for students to "assess how a product or system will affect individuals, society, and the environment" (p. 133) so that they can recognize the potential for good as well as bad impacts on families, classes, school, neighborhoods, cities, countries, and the world. Whether discussing the disposal for waste products generated by technological processes or determining how best to provide access to information technologies such as the Internet, moral and ethical issues are involved. One of the difficulties in addressing this portion of the standards is the scarcity of instructional strategies for addressing moral and ethical issues. In some instances, technology education curriculum has focused on understanding technical systems, materials, and processes and has not adequately addressed social and cultural impacts of technology.

Appropriate technology is particularly suited to development of problem solving and thinking skills for moral and ethical decision making. Studies in this subject area include issues such as conflicting belief systems, consideration of individual needs, and the importance of compromise (Lickona, 1991; McClellan, 1992; Veugelers, 2000). Appropriate technology often involves exploration of varied people groups, political systems, and cultural settings. As a result, moral and ethical issues often surface in relevant ways that create natural opportunities for discussion and consideration.

The potential for controversy when introducing moral or ethical content into the middle school or high school classroom is an important issue that must be considered thoughtfully. As indicated by the criticism and protest about the introduction of character education in schools, some individuals do not think that issues related to morals and ethics should be a part of the school curriculum or disagree with the instructional strategies being used for it (Molnar, 1990). Their arguments include statements about separation of church and state and suggestions that these issues are more appropriately addressed in the context of family, church, synagogue, or mosque. However, upon further investigation these kinds of moral and ethical content can and should be addressed in schools because they consist of topics that persons of all religious backgrounds can agree on. Issues of trustworthiness, respect, responsibility, fairness, caring, and citizenship are characteristics that are compatible with all major religions and do not violate church/state separation unless they are presented in a biased format. For those who do not subscribe to any organized religion, a strong logical case can be made for a "moral law" that is inherent to human beings and apparently an integral part of their design (Lewis, 1952). In fact, the rule of law found in all civilized societies reflects these fundamental principles of behavior.

Identifying the moral and ethical issues that are appropriate for school programs to include can be approached from at least three differing perspectives. One is to simply choose a list of topics that seem to represent commonly agreed upon concepts. The problem with this approach is that it usually involves efforts of one individual teacher or a small group of people within a school setting and is subject to criticism with respect to how choices were made. If manners, for example, are chosen as an area to be covered, the question then becomes whose manners. Some people subscribe to say "yes sir" and "yes mam" while others consider this to be rude or disrespectful. If students are taught to behave in certain ways with respect to manners, criticism arises if the choices of manners fail to coincide with those of parents and others in a community.

Another approach to be considered in selecting the moral and ethical issues is the published work of organizations such as Character Counts. Based on a 1992 survey that showed significant problems with cheating, lying, stealing, and substance abuse, Character Counts was developed to help guide character development efforts (http://www.charactercounts.org/backgrnd.htm). A consensus was reached by a group of educators, ethicists, and nonprofit leaders who met in Aspen, Colorado during that year to develop a list of ethical values that could be taught at home, in the classroom, and at work without offending political, racial, religious, gender, or socioeconomic sensibilities. This list included trustworthiness, respect, responsibility, justice & fairness, caring and civic virtue & citizenship.

A third strategy available for choosing what moral and ethical issues schools should address is that of a research-based approach. Hill (1995) used a sample of 1,151 working adults to examine work ethic attributes and identified three constructs that characterize work ethic. These were interpersonal skills, initiative, and being dependable. While these constructs do not encompass the range of moral and ethical issues addressed by Character Counts, they are representative of a third approach for identifying moral and ethical issues to be considered – that of an objective, research-based approach. In this instance, data from a relatively large sample was used to establish what issues are important in the workplace.

The latter two approaches described above, as compared with the first, provide a more defensible basis for selecting moral and ethical issues to be considered in a school setting. Regardless of how topics are selected, appropriate technology as an area of study provides the ideal context for addressing the issues. Without a relevant and practical context for instruction, addressing moral and ethical issues in the school setting will likely be perceived by students as "preaching" and results will be minimal.

Moral and Ethical Issues Related to AT

The field of appropriate technology includes several prominent areas of concern that provide an excellent context for considering moral and ethical issues. Three of these are environmental pollution, labor issues, and nonrenewable energy resources. In each of these areas, appropriate technology offers critique and potential solutions. The perspective provided, in conjunction with technology education studies of systems related to manufacturing, transportation, construction, and energy and power, can provide opportunity for students to develop a balanced outlook on issues they make decisions about.

Environmental Pollution

One of the concerns implementation of appropriate technology addresses is the application of modern technologies in developing nations. When these technologies are introduced without consideration of other factors, serious side effects often result. One example is urban air pollution in most large cities in developing nations. In cities such as Beijing, Delhi, Jakarta, and Mexico City air pollutant levels sometimes exceed World Health Organization (WHO) standards by a factor of three or more (World Resources Institute[a], 1999). Estimates by the WHO indicate that as many as 1.4 billion people worldwide, primarily located in urban areas, breathe air that exceeds the WHO air guidelines (World Resources Institute[a], 1999).

Air pollution creates significant health problems for some urban residents in developing countries. A recent study in Jakarta estimated that on a yearly basis 1,400 fewer deaths, 49,000 fewer emergency room visits, and 600,000 fewer asthma attacks would take place if particulate levels were reduced to WHO levels (World Resources Institute[a], 1999). In Latin America an estimated 65 million days of illness each year for 81 million city residents can be traced to high air pollution problems (World Resources Institute[a], 1999). This represents approximately one fourth of all city residents in the region.

A problem even more serious in developing countries than pollution of the atmosphere is indoor air pollution. In many regions “modern technology” in the form of housing has been introduced, but traditional solid fuels continue to be used for cooking and heating. This mix of old and new has resulted in high rates of indoor air pollution for an estimated 3.5 billion persons (World Resources Institute[a], 1999). With approximately 2.8 million deaths per year resulting from breathing of indoor air that exceeds WHO particulate standards, indoor air pollution contributes to about 6 percent of all deaths each year in developing countries (World Resources Institute[a], 1999).

Based on studies in the Pacific, South Asia, China, Africa, and Latin America, exposure to indoor air pollution from dirty fuels contributes to four main categories of serious illnesses: acute respiratory infection (ARI) in children, chronic obstructive lung diseases (asthma and chronic bronchitis), lung cancer, and birth complications including stillbirths (World Resources Institute[a], 1999). ARI appears to be the most serious of these problems. Children with exposure to smoke from cookstoves in dwelling places are from 2.5 to 5 times more likely to develop ARI and require hospitalization (World Resources Institute[a], 1999).

The crux of this problem can be traced to weatherproofing techniques used in housing without consideration of other factors present in the environment. In industrialized nations, numerous technologies such as electricity, clean-burning fuels, appliances, heating and cooling systems, and housing have developed side by side. When one segment of these technologies are introduced into the environment of a developing nation without consideration of other related issues, situations such as that of the problems with indoor air pollution can arise.

The moral and ethical issue that should be addressed during a lesson on home weatherproofing techniques is whether it is appropriate for a company or organization to market products in developing nations without regard to other relevant factors in that environment. For example, a company that produces modular housing or other forms of modern building products that are of high quality and provide strong, weathertight structures expands its markets into the international arena. It might not take into account the appliances or other technologies that are typically used by the new customers in another country. If that resulted in significant health risks to customers due to their continued use of other incompatible technologies, is there a moral or ethical problem the building products company has a responsibility to consider?

Labor Issues

The introduction of technological processes in the form of manufacturing operations in numerous parts of the world has resulted in serious labor concerns. In particular, the use of child labor has increasingly drawn attention in recent years. Other issues involve failure to provide adequate care for workers with respect to safety, appropriate remuneration, and working conditions.

With regard to child labor, modern communication and transportation systems have supported the widespread development of multinational corporations. These firms have pushed to locate various segments of their enterprises in regions of the world that provide the lowest costs and greatest overall profits in producing their products. In some instances this has allowing children or other underemployed segments of an indigenous population to be employed in work that is physically possible, often due to modern manufacturing technologies, but ultimately harmful from the standpoint of individual human needs. A 1997 report on The State of the World’s Children (UNICEF) showed that in developing nations approximately 23% of primary school age children did not attend school as compared to 1% in developed nations. In most instances these children are a part of the labor force, either performing domestic or agricultural work or producing manufactured products of some type.

With respect to agricultural work that involves migrant and seasonal farm workers, even more serious circumstances are often present. It is estimated that 250,000 children migrate as farm workers each year, and 90,000 children are moved across an international border (Migration World Magazine, 1998). Those that migrate across a border are often traveling to a developed nation, such as the United States, where modern technology has allowed agricultural operations to become tremendously efficient, but where some crops still require the human touch for harvesting or other delicate operations. Aside from problems associated with missed educational opportunities and similar issues, research has shown that as many as 48 percent of these children have been exposed to fields still wet with pesticides (Migration World Magazine, 1998). With their lower body weight and higher metabolism, this exposure is especially hazardous to children.

Another example of a labor issue that raises moral and ethical issues that might be addressed within the context of a study of appropriate technology is the advent of “maquiladoras” along the Mexican border. These are foreign-owned assembly plants that manufacture products for export to United States markets. In a survey by the Comite de Apoyo Fronterizo Obrero Regional (Nation’s Health, 1998), 53 percent of mauqiladora workers reported that they had not received any material safety data sheets for chemicals they were exposed to at work, 40 percent had not received safety training, 38 percent reported noise levels so loud they had to shout to be heard, and 26 percent operated machinery without shields over pinch points and moving parts.

The actual investment of multinational corporations in “maquiladoras” or industries in other developing nations represents approximately one-fourth of their total international investments (Wilson, 1997), but the magnitude of these operations is nevertheless significant. Much of the work performed in these plants consists of assembly work for apparel, electronics, and automotive parts, and operations are often labor intensive. While the movement of various manufacturing operations to locations where costs can be reduced and profits increased is good for business, caution is needed to be sure that basic human rights and worker health and safety are preserved.

Study of appropriate technology provides excellent opportunities to address moral and ethical issues related to labor. When manufacturing technologies are introduced in developing nations, economic benefits can be produced, but they must be balanced with appropriate regard for human rights and dignity. The extent to which a company is responsible for these issues, especially when competition is stiff and economic issues are pressing, is an important topic in the development technologically literate world citizens. When economic benefits are primarily focused on few individuals while the majority are relegated to unsafe work environments with minimal wages, moral and ethical issues are involved.

Nonrenewable Energy Resources

The introduction of new technologies in developing nations is contributing to significant increases in demand for commercial energy. Developing nations are expected to increase their share of world energy use by 40 percent by 2010 (World Resources Institute[b], 1999). The primary source of this new energy consumption will be fossil fuel – oil, natural gas, and coal. Even though these fuels produce fewer pollutants per unit of energy than other fuels typically used in developing countries, increased air pollution is anticipated as a result of expanded energy consumption.

Of greater concern are issues surrounding reliance on nonrenewable fuels. Estimates are for oil production to peak sometime between 2007 and 2019 (MacKenzie, 1996). As peak production approaches, oil prices will increase and will continue to do so as demand continues to grow. One likely outcome will be increased strain on the economies of developing nations who are dependent on fossil fuels for construction of basic infrastructure and least able to afford price increases. The result could well be disappointments or failures by developing nations to achieve the same technological prosperity modeled by industrialized nations.

Growing dependence on nonrenewable energy resources will likely contribute to continued dominance by industrialized nations within the realm of global economics. Unless some type of global political turmoil upsets the balance of power, the rich will likely get richer and the poor will get poorer. The construction of roads, bridges, dams, airports, seaports, transportation systems, schools, and government buildings require technologies that are heavily dependent on fuels such as diesel and gasoline. Once these types of structures are in place, maintenance requires similar technologies, but not to the extent that is required during initial construction. For that reason, developing nations without these features are apt to be much more needy of scarce petroleum resources while at the same time least able to thrive economically without them. Most industrialized nations developed these basic structures during years when petroleum costs were relatively low.

Appropriate technology enters the picture asking the difficult questions about alternative fuels, long-term planning, and encouraging a course of action that can be sustained in a competitive global environment. Perhaps rather than purchasing construction equipment that is lowest in initial cost and operates on diesel, expenditures would be made on equipment capable of operating on methanol or other alternative energy sources. Whether this particular illustration is practical or not, the approach should be one of thinking through the long-term consequences and using the best knowledge available to make decisions.

The moral and ethical issues involved should balance the interests of big business against the long-term good of people groups in developing nations. Sound education and advice with a view toward technological growth that is sustainable at the local level should underpin key decisions. In some instances, a somewhat altruistic approach would be needed on the part of those who might facilitate this process and this type of assistance would not necessarily come from people watching the bottom line of existing businesses. This assistance would more likely come from technologically literate citizens in industrialized nations seeking to both support developing nations as well as to preserve dwindling nonrenewable resources.

A somewhat more extreme position regarding use of nonrenewable resources such as petroleum for fuel is that burning of this material is not appropriate. The long and complex chemical molecules provided by petroleum are irreplaceable in the production of plastic and polymers. These materials are increasingly essential to modern life and without them, many benefits to both industrialized and developing nations would be deprived. For this reason, a rational case could be made that appropriate technology precludes the use of petroleum products for fuels when renewable resources could be used. This is a long-term perspective and one that would not be popular, but one that future citizens of the world might wish had been considered further.

Technology Education and Appropriate Technology

A key outcome of technology education as an educational discipline is the development of technologically literate citizens. As we have moved into a truly global economy, this perspective should be one of global citizens rather than citizens of a particular nation or territory. No longer is an isolationist outlook appropriate – certainly in a moral and ethical sense – when so many decisions in both business as well as in government influence peoples’ lives around the globe. Students who will become future corporate leaders, consumers, and voters need to be aware of the balanced perspective available through a study of appropriate technology.

Society at the dawn of the 21^st century is enamored with technology. Just as printed books were once considered the purveyor of truth, computers tend to be considered the source of truth in the present age. Whether in computing the magnitude of a consumer debt or calculating the risk involved in administering a new pharmaceutical, computers and information technology are central to decision-making and commercial activity.

Appropriate technology, without approaching the issue from a luddite perspective, provides opportunities for students to experience problem-solving opportunities and decision-making practices in situations where the latest microchip might not be the correct answer. In some instances, appropriate technology calls for applications of simple yet elegant solutions that were first developed long before the first printed circuit board or even the harnessing of electricity. Whether using a simple solar collector to heat water for bathing or applying strip-till techniques to the planting of crops, appropriate technology solutions are often devoid of the common assumptions underlying mainstream technologies.

By addressing the learning opportunities provided through appropriate technology instruction, students are taught to look beyond the obvious answers and to consider options that are innovative and creative. The thought processes involved are extremely valuable, but difficult to enhance within a context where correct answers are clearly available and often listed for odd numbered problems in the back of a textbook. Problems provided through appropriate technology are often ill-structured, have multiple possible solutions, and require considerable integration of math, science, and technology to solve.

With respect to moral and ethical issues, appropriate technology presents opportunities for students to include consideration of peoples’ needs in a holistic manner and encourages consideration of long-term, sustainable benefits rather than temporary satisfaction or relief. With mainstream technologies, moral and ethical issues often fail to be considered – not because they are not relevant, but because society appears to have already resolved them. Within the context of accepted practice, it is difficult to have students seriously question practices that are assumed to be acceptable. Evidence of this is available in failed efforts at convincing people to carpool or use mass transportation even though there are ethical issues involved related to the conservation of resources and reduction of pollution.

Appropriate technology provides basic opportunities for technology education to educate students not only about the impact of technology on society, but also to consider issues such as civic responsibility care and concern for others, and personal and societal values. Students can be challenged to think about issues ranging from personal lifestyle to corporate responsibility. The end result is a better-informed citizenry and a more responsible worker, regardless of one’s chosen occupation.

Review Questions

1. In some ways developing nations have a greater need for fossil fuels such as gasoline and diesel than do industrialized countries. Why is this the case and what are the moral and ethical ramifications of this issue?

2. If morals and ethics are to be addressed in schools, what standards should be used to determine "right" and "wrong?"

3. When multinational corporations locate factories in developing nations, the wages paid to local workers are often high as compared to other wages available locally but much lower than wages paid in industrialized nations for comparable work. Is this right or wrong? Why?

4. Provide a rationale for students in the United States to study air pollution problems in China. Give a minimum of three reasons for study of problems like this in other parts of the world.

5. Describe a reasonable approach for introducing new technologies into the marketplace of a developing nation. Use the five-step problem solving approach as an outline in preparing your comments (1-define the problem, 2-explore possible solutions, 3-select a solution using a systematic process, 4-implement the solution, 5-assess and revise the solution).

6. Develop a list of behaviors that that should be practiced by someone who truly supports sustainable technology and conservation of resources (turning lights off, avoiding unnecessary automobile trips, etc.). Use this list to formulate a "Sustainable Technology Ethics Test" and pilot test it with students in a technology education class.

7. Past experiences have shown that the price of gasoline in the United States is a sensitive issue. When prices rise and stay high over an extended period of time, consumption is reduced. It is also clear that the rate of consumption of petroleum in the United States is much higher per capita than in most parts of the world. What arguments can be presented in support of adding taxes that raise the price of gasoline and using the funds generated to support development of alternative fuels? What arguments can be presented against this idea?

References

Beach, W. (1991). Ethical education in our public schools: Crisis and opportunity. The Clearing House, 61(4), 313-315.

Hill, R. B. & Womble, M. N. (1997). Teaching work ethic: Evaluation of a 10-day unit of instruction on work ethic, work attitudes, and employability skills. The Journal of Educational Opportunity, 16(1), 57-79.

Hill, R. B. (1995). A new look at selected employability skills: A factor analysis of the Occupational Work Ethic. Journal of Vocational Education Research, 20(4), pp. 59-73.

International Technology Education Association. (1998). Standards for technology education: Content for the study of technology. Blacksburg, VA: Technology for All Americans Project.

Lankard, B. A. (1990). Employability--the fifth basic skill. ERIC Digest No. 104. Columbus, OH: ERIC Clearinghouse on Adult, Career, and Vocational Education.

Lickona, T. (1991). Educating for character. New York: Bantam.

Lewis, C. S. (1952). Mere Christianity. New York: Macmillan.

MacKenzie, J. J. (1996). Oil as a finite resource: When is global production likely to peak? World Resource Institute web site, http://www.igc.org/wri/climate/finitoil/index.html

McClellan, B. E. (1992). Schools and the shaping of character: Moral education in America 1607-present. ERIC No. ED352310. Bloomington, IN: ERIC Clearinghouse for Social Studies/Social Science Education.

Migrant and seasonal farmworker children. (1998). Migration World Magazine, 26(5), 36.

Nolnar, A. (1990). Judging the ethics of ethics education social responsibility. Educational Leadership, 48 (3), 73-74.

Maquiladora workers report unhealthful working conditions. (1998). Nation’s Health, 28(1), 24.

Noddings, N. (1991). Values by deliberation or default. The Clearing House, 64, 320-322.

Secretary's Commission on Achieving Necessary Skills (SCANS). (1992). Learning a living: A blueprint for high performance, A SCANS report for America 2000. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Labor.

Veugelers, W. (2000). Different ways of teaching values. Educational Review, 52(1), 37-46.

Wilson, D. L. (1997). Do Maquiladoras matter? Monthly Review, 49(5), 28-35.

World Resources Institute[a]. (1999). http://www.igc.org/wri/wr-98-99/airpoll.htm

World Resources Institute[b]. (1999). http://www.igc.org/wri/wr-98-99/002-ener.htm

Chapter 5

Design Criteria for Developing Appropriate Technology

Marie Hoepfl

Appalachian State University

Boone, North Carolina

Waste, especially when wasted, is a sure sign of bad design.

J. Baldwin

This chapter will explore the role of design in creating technological solutions that are in keeping with the

goals and tenets of appropriate technology. While the characteristics and definition of appropriate technology are explored throughout this book, this chapter will focus on how these ideals are interpreted and implemented in practice through the following goals:

• Development of the relationship between appropriate technology and the emerging field of ecological design;
• Review of the underlying principles of ecological design, their application in a variety of contexts, and criteria for determining the appropriateness of design solutions; and
• Recommendation of ecological design criteria, within the context of appropriate technology, can be applied in technology education classrooms.

Design is the process through which human needs and wants are translated into physical form. The process involves a series of decisions about the specific characteristics of the designed object, system, or space. The appropriate technology movement that emerged in the late 1960s provided a framework for designing technological solutions that could be readily understood, operated and maintained by members of the community they served, while using minimal material resources and energy inputs. The concept of appropriate technology has evolved over the past three decades into an emphasis on sustainability of both natural and cultural resources for future generations. Design for sustainable living requires a commitment to new ways of addressing human needs and a re-examination of human wants, along with a deeper understanding of the natural world and its physical limits. The emerging field of ecological design provides a foundation upon which innovative technologies for the 21^st Century can be built.

The Role of Design and the Designer

Design can be defined as “the intentional shaping of matter, energy, and process to meet a perceived need or desire” (Van der Ryn and Cowan, 1996, p. 8). Our technologies and the process of design are inextricably linked, for the creation of all human-built artifacts, environments and systems is the result of purposeful activity on the part of a designer, whether he or she is an architect, a farmer, a housewife, or a child. Design, whether we choose to call it that or not, is all around us.

The process of design is the critical link between what is valued in a culture and what the built world is like. As we survey the modern landscape, we may observe a number of technologies that are a detriment to humankind and the environment. In many ways, this problem exists because designers at all levels have become trapped in outmoded and wasteful, yet standardized, ways of doing things. What results is “dumb design,” according to Van der Ryn and Cowan (1996), or designs that fail to take into account human and environmental health and well-being. The human and environmental crises that result can thus be considered the consequences of a deeply imbedded, yet flawed, culture of design. “ We keep adding one technology to another like extension cords to a single outlet -- but we rarely stop to ask what we want those technologies to accomplish, other than speed, production, and profit” (Wann, 1995, p. 116).

On a global level, overconsumption on the part of industrialized nations has depleted their natural resource capital, and now threatens the resource base of many lesser-developed nations. Disparity between the wealthier consumers and the world’s poor is marked: the richest one fifth have 85 percent of the world’s income. Over 800 million people are chronically undernourished, contrasting with the problem of widespread obesity in the United States. Poverty can be just as incompatible with sustainable development as overconsumption is, since those in poverty strive first to meet basic needs and achieve a form of economic security (Carley & Spapens, 1998). Thus, environmental protection is a luxury they cannot afford. The overriding challenge for the coming decades is how to help people in developing nations reap some of the benefits of a market economy -- better nutrition, higher standards of material comfort -- without passing the costs of such development off on to the environment and to future generations.

Technological Choices

Designers work within a variety of constraints, and trade-offs are always involved. There are, first, the broad goals defined by the society or by the business plan: increases in productivity; greater market share; higher employment rates; more attractive communities; and so on. These set the stage for what kinds of decisions are made. Next come the more specific goals determined by the constraints of the system, such as material availability; human resources; energy inputs; and environmental conditions. Finally, designers must satisfy the technical constraints: how big should it be; what mechanisms will be employed; how will the materials be processed? The answers to these particular questions will depend on the larger goals and their relative importance. The goals of market economies dictate the trade-offs that will be accepted. If siting a pulp mill on a scenic riverway will lead to good jobs and economic development for the community, then the community will accept the trade-off of degraded water quality in the river. People may object, but the overriding concern that governs decision-making is toward the health of the market economy.

There is evidence that such trade-offs are no longer palatable, however. Surveys conducted in the United States in 1996 found that the majority of those polled reject trade-offs between different social needs, and believe that economic development, environmental protection, and the well-being of people can all be accommodated (DeSimone & Popoff, 1997). What results, then, is the goal of optimizing these apparently competing demands.

To illustrate this, we can examine a conventional view held by some economists regarding the economics of environmental protection. The theory of optimal pollution states that the costs of achieving environmental protection rise in an ever-increasing curve. According to this theory, “optimal” pollution is achieved when the cost of reducing pollution exactly matches the costs that would be incurred by not reducing pollution. The flaw in this view lies with the fact that it calculates costs in terms of cleaning up emissions “at the end of the pipe.” It does not consider the economics of preventive action, which involves re-arranging the way we accomplish tasks, rather than reacting to problems after they occur. By implementing preventive measures within a system, much greater levels of environmental protection can be achieved at lower costs (Jackson, 1996). Designers can apply the concept of optimization to any set of desired goals.

Appropriate Design

“Appropriateness … must always be judged by a particular set of values and under particular conditions. One must always ask: Appropriate for what? Appropriate where? We can take seriously the insights of the appropriate technology movement, without making any list of specific characteristics absolute or universal” (Barbour, 1993, p. 247).

In the most basic sense, the goals of appropriate technology represent those fundamental human and social values that we would hope for all people. They include adequate food, good health, meaningful work, personal fulfillment, distributive justice, participatory freedom, and economic well-being. Increasingly, we see the need for coupling human values with environmental values such as resource sustainability, environmental protection, and respect for all forms of life (Barbour, 1993). Taken together, these form the underlying theme that guides appropriate technology design decisions.

The concept of appropriate technology, which emerged from the work of E.F. Schumacher in the 1950s and 1960s (Hazeltine and Bull, 1999), has thus evolved along with global economic changes, population growth, and a rising concern for the environment. It might be said that sustainability is the 1990s incarnation of appropriate technology. From their counterculture roots, the tenets of the appropriate technology movement are now emerging within a variety of more mainstream design trends, such as urban ecology, industrial ecology, sustainable development, and ecological design. An examination of these various trends will lead to a deeper understanding of appropriate design and the criteria that guide it.

Designing for People and the Environment: Ecological Design

John and Nancy Jack Todd describe ecological design as “design for human settlements that incorporates principles inherent in the natural world in order to sustain human population over a long span of time” (1984, p. 1). This approach is based on the belief that “if we are to continue to shelter and feed the people of the world in the coming centuries, we will have to design in a different way than we do now” (p. 12). That different approach must incorporate information about the potential consequences of technology for human life, society and the environment into the decision-making process (Vanderburg, 1999).

Ecological design is based on several precepts, including the following (adapted from Todd & Todd, 1984):

· The living world is a model for all design. The Gaia hypothesis posed by Margulis and Lovelock provides one way of looking at ecological design. In this view, the earth is seen as a system that maintains homeostatic conditions, “actively seeking to keep the environment optimal for life” (Todd & Todd, 1984, p. 20). For the designer, the recognition that all designs must operate within a highly complex, living system provides the basis from which design activity proceeds. Additionally, some of our greatest breakthroughs and creative solutions can arise by incorporating natural processes (e.g. decay, magnetism, photosynthesis, etc.) into our designs (Papanek, 1971; Van der Ryn & Cowan, 1996; Wann, 1996).

· Design should follow, not oppose, the laws of nature. All organisms are composed of cells that interact and cooperate with other cells. At the same time, the larger organism is interdependent with other life forms. This recognition of interdependence should inform all technological design as well. The natural process of succession in biological communities can also be incorporated into the designed world. In nature, succession leads to an increasing diversity of organisms within an ecosystem, creating a more stable and efficient system (Todd & Todd, 1984).

· Design must be equitable. Access to, and the distribution of, resources should not lead to great disparity between the “haves and have-nots.” This concept is also known as distributive justice.

· Design must reflect bioregionality and regional culture. A bioregion is an area that can be seen as topographically and climatically distinct from surrounding regions. The pueblos of the southwestern United States are an excellent example of bioregional shelter design (Todd & Todd, 1984). Standardized approaches to design cannot be expected to work in all cultures and all bioregions (Van der Ryn & Cowan, 1996).

· Projects should be based on renewable energy resources. Our dependency on non-renewable sources of energy “is one of the prime symptoms of the lack of resiliency that characterizes developed countries at present” (Todd & Todd, 1984, p. 58). One source of renewable energy that could be based on bioregional sources is the conversion of waste biomass. Examples are cotton gin trash in the areas of the South where cotton in grown; walnut and other nut shells in California; and logging waste in timber regions. The establishment of one of the world’s largest windfarms in the sparsely populated mountain passes of California is another example of a bioregionally appropriate energy resource.

· Designers must explicitly consider the environmental impacts of their designs (Van der Ryn & Cowan, 1996). Through new understandings in ecology, biology, cybernetics, and technology, humans are beginning to devise ways to restore the fabric of the natural world that has systematically been torn apart through human activity over the centuries. An example of this is the work being done by William McDonough, a Virginia-based architect and professor who has designed energy-efficient buildings for the likes of Wal-Mart, Herman Miller Furniture, and The Gap. These buildings use sustainably harvested woods, low toxicity finishes, and incorporate features like storm water runoff filters and an emphasis on interior air quality. Recently, McDonough and partners designed a biodegradable upholstery fabric made without the use of toxic chemicals. For McDonough, “’any emission [is] a signal of inefficiency’” (Litvan, 1996, p. 14).

The following can be considered a sort of checklist of foundational design criteria for appropriate technologies. They are:

· Small scale

· Affordable

· Energy efficient, using solar power resources where possible

· Environmentally sound

· Controlled and repairable by members of the local community

· Conducive to the good health of humans and habitat (Hazeltine & Bull, 1999; Wann, 1996).

The sections that follow offer examples to illustrate these criteria in more depth.

Urban ecology

There is growing interest in the design of communities that enhance the quality of life for residents by encouraging economic and cultural diversity and by encouraging increased use of public transport, walking and cycling (Berghall & Konvitz, 1997; Wann, 1996; Van der Ryn & Calthorpe, 1986). Curitiba, a Brazilian city of over 2 million people, provides a remarkable example of an urban area that works on a variety of levels. During the 1960s and 1970s urban planners made some key decisions regarding the nature of development that would take place in that rapidly growing city. Flooding, once a problem, was alleviated by prohibiting building in strategic low-lying areas, turning many riverbanks into parks, and creating lakes to hold floodwaters. The city reduced the need for high-cost flood mitigation technologies, and at the same time realized a 100-fold increase in the amount of green space per capita. Curitiba’s public bus transportation system is considered one of “the most influential elements in accounting for the shape of the city” (Rabinovitch & Leitman, 1996, p. 48). By making bus transport faster, safer, cheaper, and more accessible, Curitiba achieved impressive results: three-fourths of all commuters take the bus; fuel consumption overall is 25 percent lower than in other Brazilian cities; and low-income residents spend only about 10 percent of their income on transportation. At the same time, the choice of buses over a subway system addressed some key criteria of appropriateness: the cost per kilometer of service was 300 percent lower, and bus operation and maintenance could be handled by local technicians. Pedestrian and bike paths that are integrated with a road network designed to reduce congestion, even in densely populated areas, complement the public transport system (Rabinovitch & Leitman, 1996; Zelov & Cousineau, 1997).

Industrial Ecology

Current practices in industry are increasingly seen to be too costly on a variety of levels in relation to the economic wealth they bring. The focus of industrial ecology is on rethinking these current, destructive practices. Industrial ecology is based on the implicit belief that industrial activity can be made sustainable in the long term by introducing new practices. Tibbs (1992) describes an industrial park in Denmark, in which an electrical plant, an oil refinery, a drywall manufacturer and others have coordinated efforts and material flows to the point where the “waste” from one becomes a key input to another. This reconceptualization of “wastes as products” is a model of industrial ecology that can be implemented widely (p. 9).

Another promising industrial practice is design for disassembly, which Fortune magazine calls “the hottest new production trend in the world” (Bylinsky, 1995, p. 103). Design for disassembly (DFD) means designing products that can be easily refurbished, reused, or safely disposed of at the end of their useful life. Several major industries are currently addressing the goals of DFD. For example, BMW recycles 80 percent (by weight) of its automobiles, with a goal of 95 percent. Hewlett-Packard and other manufacturers have significantly reduced the number of parts and the time required to disassemble obsolete computers, and to reuse the parts, including microchips. In Germany, “take-back” laws that make manufacturers responsible for what happens to product packaging resulted in a 600 million ton reduction in solid waste during the first two years after enactment. Companies like Colgate, responding to this legislation, created toothpaste tubes that stand on their heads, eliminating the need for a box. The second phase of Germany’s take-back legislation requires manufacturers to recycle used products. Other European countries and Japan are likely to follow suit.

Cultural Implications: Industrialized versus Developing Nations

The appropriate technology (AT) movement that arose in industrialized nations shares many of the goals of appropriate technology in developing countries. However, “the issues in the North [are] the problems of overdevelopment, not underdevelopment; personal fulfillment, not unmet basic needs; and meaningful work, not the creation of jobs” (Barbour, 1993, p. 246). In spite of increased awareness about some of these issues, the problem of distributive justice remains a primary concern to those interested in the principles of the AT movement.

Lardner (1999) describes the latest wave of consumer spending in the United States, where the Department of Commerce estimates that more than 8 million households have average incomes of over $100,000. Evidence of the “urge to splurge” is ample: 20 million households have big-screen televisions; 4,000 + square-foot “McMansions” have proliferated across the nation; sport-utility vehicles have become the number-one selling class of vehicles in the country. Americans are “caught in an arms-race-like cycle in which a series of decisions, logical in themselves, add up to collective madness” (p. 52). Obviously, our consumption of resources has long since passed the realm of addressing needs and is fully and unabashedly in the realm of supplying frivolous and non-essential wants. Furthermore, we are as a society trapped in a paradigm of practice in which the scope of our consumption patterns is often obscured. The following “clothesline paradox,” attributed to architect Steve Bauer, illustrates this problem:

We drill for oil in Alaska, send it through pipelines, refine it, and ship it to an oil-fired electrical utility. The oil is burned, producing steam to push turbines that generate electricity. The electricity is sent out to the grid, traveling hundreds of miles with transmission losses along the way, and thence to your clothes dryer. Here the electrical energy is converted to the mechanical energy of the revolving drum and the thermal energy of the heating coil in your dryer, allowing your clothes to dry. On the other hand, you could have just hung your clothes out to dry on a clothesline! (van der Ryn & Cowan, 1996, p. 73).

Cultural blocks can prevent us from looking at things in new ways. Van der Ryn (1978) describes the history of human waste treatment over the centuries, and contrasts the approaches prevalent in industrialized nations like the United States with lesser developed countries like China. “Advanced” waste treatment systems use several gallons of fresh water, mix the water with the human waste, send it to a centralized facility where specialized machines then attempt to separate the waste and water, treat the water with chemicals, then (in many cases) send the chemically-treated brew back into the water supply. At the same time, the rich nutrients contained in the excreta are wasted, while farmers make use of expensive, artificial fertilizers that also do their part to pollute our water supplies. What is considered good practice in this country, presumably because, once flushed, the waste is “out of sight, out of mind,” appears completely irrational when viewed through a different lens. By contrast, lesser-developed nations like China continue to make use of composted human waste as a source of natural fertilizer, without using large amounts of fresh water in the process.

Developing countries have the apparent goal of achieving, through industrialization, the level of material prosperity enjoyed in the West. This process is only intensified by developments in global communication capabilities. In spite of grave concerns on the part of industrialized nations that widespread industrialization and consumption at Western levels would be environmentally disastrous, “simple equity argues that it is also morally unavoidable.” The challenge, then, is to help newly industrializing nations achieve prosperity with “intrinsically less environmentally demanding industrial patterns from the outset” (Tibbs, 1992, p. 14).

An established, measurable trend that has emerged in industrialized countries is that material and energy “intensity” in industrial products has declined, a trend Tibbs (1992) calls “dematerialization.” This trend shows that economic growth can be decoupled from growth in material use. The process of dematerialization could be accelerated and integrated into an emerging industrial ecology in developing nations. At the same time, a commitment to the goals and principles of appropriate technology dictates a re-examination of consumption patterns in overdeveloped countries like the United States.

In the process of trying to help newly industrializing countries, designers and policy makers in the West must acknowledge that solutions that work well in their nations may be totally inappropriate elsewhere:

In the mid-1950s, designers visiting the third world would sweep into a native region like white missionaries, forcing their wisdom on the natives. It took them years to realize that these people need half-horsepower tractors more than large combines…. Their hopes lie so close to sheer survival, their needs are so different from ours, that it is difficult to build bridges of understanding"”(Papanek, 1983, p.153).

Wicklein (1998) discusses seven criteria for appropriate technology in developing countries. These include being affordable

and being able to function without extensive supporting facilities, but also address less obvious cultural factors such as the

need for an “image of modernity” so that the technology appeals to the dignity of those who will use it. Another culture-

bound criterion is the degree to which a new technology fits the collective versus individual priorities of the community,

which can vary from place to place (p. 372).

Applying Appropriate Technology Design Criteria in the Technology Education Classroom

Design has long been a part of the industrial arts/technology education curriculum, and in recent years it has gained a renewed emphasis in many programs, largely due to the influence of the British Design Technology curriculum, and to the greater focus on constructivist learning. Certainly a strong rationale exists for including the process of design as a prominent feature of technology education. Educators must take care, however, not to employ methods and ways of thinking representative of the industrial age coming to a close. For example, writing prophetically three decades ago, Papanek (1971) noted that schools fall short in the area of locating and identifying problems. “Students in most learning situations are asked to solve projects. This means that a ‘special case’ situation is presented to the student, and the student is expected to regurgitate a ‘special case’ answer to the teacher” (p. 298). This approach engages students in design problems in the absence of a larger sociocultural context to give them greater import.

The technical efficiency model characteristic of 20^th Century industry permeates technology education activities almost universally. Consider the CO2 car, the boat hull design, the assembly line, the bridge design projects: nearly all include a calculation of efficiency as a culminating evaluation of success. While admirable in its intent, this sort of exercise reduces design to the simplistic and somewhat myopic formula of maximizing efficiency. The more powerful challenge would be to optimize several desirable characteristics, such as resource and energy use; life span and life cycle costs; environmental impacts; and human health.

Selected Appropriate Design Tools for the Classroom

One tool that Papanek (1971) has used with his students, to help them keep track of the interrelated parameters one must consider in integrated design, is to construct a large, graphic flow chart in the classroom. The flow chart shows all the issues and ideas the teams generate for a particular situation, as well as the interrelationships between those parameters. Each flow chart remains a work in progress, as new ideas and linkages constantly emerge.

This is similar to the more formal tool known as a life cycle analysis. A life cycle analysis helps us trace the impacts of a design over its history. Both the design and purchase of a product provide an inherent, if indirect, support for all steps in its life cycle, placing a burden of responsibility to discover the effects of its creation and use. A life cycle analysis can turn up some surprising information about how raw materials were extracted; the human and environmental impacts of the various stages of processing those materials; the long-term effects of use of the product; and what happens to the product when its useful life is done (DeSimone & Popoff, 1997; Jackson, 1996; Van der Ryn & Cowan, 1996). This can be a systematic, powerful tool for helping students understand the far-reaching implications of what they design and/or use. That information can then be used to improve the products of design. A simple chart for documenting this type of “cradle to grave” examination is shown in Figure 1.

Place Figure 1 About Here

Another tool that designers can use is technology assessment. Technology assessment, like life-cycle analysis, tries to anticipate consequences of design or policy decisions beforehand, rather than waiting for them to happen. The unique power of technology assessment is that it attempts to identify the diverse groups who may be affected by a technology, and the variety of ways they might be impacted. It looks at the adverse social, political, environmental and economic impacts on the various stakeholders. In addition, technology assessment examines the differential effects of alternative policies or solutions, providing decision-makers with data to answer the question “If we do this, then what might occur?” (Barbour, 1993). When this tool is applied to the design process, it helps identify alternative solutions earlier in the development process, when less is at stake. Perhaps more than any other tool, technology assessment can help designers address the broad principles of appropriate technology and sustainability.

Using components of Total Quality Management, such as Statistical Process Control (SPC), we can examine cause and effect by pursuing the root causes of problems. SPC involves monitoring the manufacturing process on an ongoing basis, and then addressing any production errors at their source, rather than fixing flawed products after the fact. Students can examine a negative outcome and ask the question “Why?” until they have traced the problem back to a potentially changeable source (Wann, 1996). Take, for example, the problem of tree death in the forests of Appalachia. Why did tree death occur? Because of acid rain. Why is the rain acidic? Because of the combined effects of industrial air pollutants in the air stream. Why are industrial emissions in the air stream? Because of large smokestacks designed to move exhaust away from its source. Etc., etc. “Analysis of how environmental damage happens reveals targets of opportunity for a new generation of designers. For example, if 40 percent of US energy is used in the construction and operation of buildings … [then] it’s clear we need more efficient houses” (Wann, 1995, p. 116).

Papanek (1971), in helping his students understand that design solutions can come from nature, gave his students the challenge of examining a maple seed for two weeks, at the end of which they were asked to find a practical design application that used its general form and dynamic motion in flight (though not necessarily its size). Solutions ranged from a nighttime rescue flare, to a device for stocking fish in remote locations, to toys, to a means of extinguishing forest fires in remote areas (p. 177). William McDonough and his partners use a similar approach. In the design of buildings they ask the question “’how can we design a building like a tree, [which is] a fecund structure that purifies water and makes oxygen and food?’” In the design of a community center in Indiana, the team asked, ‘”What if a town were like a forest?” (Rosenblatt, 1999, p. 45).

Selected Examples of Appropriate Design

Design principles are usually easiest to describe through illustrative examples rather than simple definitions. Appropriateness, being both abstract and very much context-bound, is one of those principles. For this reason, several examples of designs that address the foundational criteria listed earlier in this chapter are provided.

Papanek and a student designed a hand-cranked refrigeration device for Third World citizens that could protect perishable food at about 40 degrees. The unit was inexpensively produced, ran on renewable energy, and was easy to operate and maintain (1971, p. 153). They gave their design to UNESCO, rather than trying to patent it or to make a profit on the idea themselves. In this example, we see the principles of ease of understanding, availability to the poor, and being conducive to the health of humans and habitat.

Van der Ryn & Cowan (1996) describe the work of Mel Chin, an artist working in the St. Paul area, who has experimented with the use of plants such as sweet corn, bladder campion, and other species known as “hyperaccumulators” because they are capable of taking up heavy metals in contaminated water and storing them. When dried and burned, these plants can then be “mined” for their heavy metals. Chin and his colleagues have had great success, through successive plantings of hyperaccumulators, in cleaning up contaminated landfill sites, and the recovered metals are sold to offset the cost of cleanup. In this example, we see the principles of being nontoxic (and actually contributing to a reduced toxicity in the environment), conducive to good health, and using natural processes as a model for design solutions.

Soybean-based inks, now used in over 75 percent of American newspapers, replace petroleum-based inks. The ink meets the needs of both press operators, who require that inks have certain physical characteristics, and newspaper managers, who look at cost, compatibility with existing systems, color, and other factors (Wann, 1996). Here, the principles of being nontoxic, more readily recyclable, conducive to good health, bioregionality, and use of naturally renewable materials are evident. Soybean-based inks would be an excellent example to apply the assessment/analysis tools described in the last section. A comparison of the effects of soy-based versus petroleum-based inks could readily show students how far-reaching the consequences of material selection decisions can be.

Design Challenges for the 21^st Century

For the teacher who is committed to updating his or her program, and to developing in students a technological literacy that is consonant with 21^st Century demands, incorporating an emphasis on appropriate technology for sustainable living seems crucial. Exciting challenges await both teachers and students beyond the well-used traditional design activities like bridge design. The list below, created from a variety of sources, provides the beginning of a list of significant design challenges that might be addressed instead:

• Exercising equipment for children and others with physical impairments
• Walking and other types of physical aids for the elderly
• Truly safe safety devices (goggles, hearing protection, shoes, etc.)
• Farm implements
• Agricultural techniques for organic farming, food storage, irrigation
• Anaerobic digesters for household use that will convert organic wastes to methane
• Communication tools for people without electricity
• Teaching and training devices for the handicapped
• Medical, surgery and hospital equipment
• Experimental research tools
• Systems for sustaining life under marginal conditions
• Re-use and different-use packaging
• Appliances that use decreased amounts of electricity and/or water
• Your ideas here

Summary

We have the inherent capability and inferentially the responsibility of making humanity comprehensively and sustainably successful.

~ Buckminster Fuller

In this chapter, we have examined the important role the designer plays in the development of technologies to meet human needs and desires. All of us are designers at one time or another. Individually and collectively, we make decisions about the physical form our design solutions will take, and must take responsibility for the impacts of those decisions. As the 21^st Century begins, we are faced with a growing understanding of the problems, both local and global, caused by inappropriate design decisions.

The appropriate technology movement begun in the 1950s was one of the first efforts to critically examine technological choices on a global level (as opposed to more localized movements such as Luddism in 19^th Century England). More recently, the principles of appropriate technology have evolved and been absorbed into the concept known as sustainability, which seeks levels of technological development that allow for the health of humans, cultures, and the environment over time. The emerging field known as ecological design addresses these broad goals, and provides very specific examples of how sustainability might be achieved.

As technological design continues to play a prominent role in the technology education curriculum, educators must become more knowledgeable about the precepts of appropriate design, and begin to incorporate them into the design challenges posed for our students. Technological literacy in the new millennium will not be complete without a deeper understanding of the human and environmental challenges we face, and the power of technology to meet them in a responsible way.

Review Questions and Topics

1. Identify and discuss at least six broad design criteria that appropriate designs attempt to address.
2. Standardization, according to Van der Ryn and Cowan, has led to “dumb designs” that fail to take into account human and environmental well-being. Give several examples of how standardization has led to positive outcomes, and several examples of how it has led to negative outcomes.
3. What can tools such as life cycle analysis and technology assessment do for the designer? Why should such tools be used?
4. Describe the concept of sustainability. How can ecological design contribute to sustainability?
5. What practices are becoming more commonplace in modern industries as they move away from the wasteful practices that have traditionally been used?
6. Do you feel the design approach described in this chapter is appropriate for the technology education classroom? Why or why not? How would you seek to implement this approach in your own classroom?

References

Baldwin, J. (1995, Summer). Designing designers. Whole Earth Review, 86, 14-16.

Barbour, I. (1993). Ethics in an age of technology: The Gifford Lectures 1989-1991, Volume 2. San Francisco: HarperCollins Publishers, Inc.

Berghall, E. & Konvitz, J. (1997). Urbanisation and sustainability. In M. Yakowitz (Ed.), Sustainable development: OECD policy approaches for the 21^st Century (pp. 155-164).Paris: Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development.

Bylinsky, G. (1995, February 6). Manufacturing for reuse. Fortune, 102-112.

Carley, M. & Spapens, P. (1998). Sharing the world: sustainable living and global equity in the 21^st Century. New York: St. Martin’s Press.

DeSimone, L.D. & Popoff, F. (1997). Eco-efficiency: The business link to sustainable development. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press.

Fuller, R.B. (1969). Operating manual for spaceship Earth. Carbondale, IL: Southern Illinois University Press.

Hazeltine, B. & Bull, C. (1999). Appropriate technology: Tools, choices and implications. San Diego, CA: Academic Press.

Jackson, T. (1996). Material concerns: Pollution, profit and quality of life. London: Routledge.

Lardner, J. (1999, May 24). The urge to splurge. U.S. News and World Report, 126(20), 48-52.

Litvan, L. (1996, May). Designing the future. Nation’s Business, 84(5), 14-15.

Mackenzie, D. (1991). Design for the environment. New York, NY: Rizzoli International Publications, Inc.

Papanek, V. (1983). Design for human scale. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold Company.

Papanek, V. (1971). Design for the real world. New York, NY: Pantheon Books.

Rabinovitch, J. & Leitman, J. (1996, March). Urban planning in Curitiba. Scientific American, 46-53.

Rosenblatt, R. (1999, February 22). The man who wants buildings to love kids. Time Canada, 153(7), 44-47.

Tibbs, H. (1992, Winter). Industrial ecology: An environmental agenda for industry. Whole Earth Review, 77, 4-19.

Todd, N.J. & Todd, J. (1984). Bioshelters, ocean arks, city farming: Ecology as the basis of design. San Francisco: Sierra Club Books.

Vanderburg, W.H. (1999, April). On the measurement and integration of sustainability in engineering education. Journal of Engineering Education, 88(2), 231-235.

Van der Ryn, S. (1978). The toilet papers. Santa Barbara, CA: Capra Press.

Van der Ryn, S. & Calthorpe, P. (1986). Sustainable communities: A new design synthesis for cities, suburbs and towns. San Francisco: Sierra Club Books.

Van der Ryn, S. & Cowan, S. (1996). Ecological design. Washington, D.C: Island Press.

Wann, D. (1996). Deep design: Pathways to a livable future. Washington, D.C.: Island Press.

Wann, D. (1995, Winter). Negotiating the future by design. Whole Earth Review, 88, 114-118.

Wicklein, R. (1998). Designing appropriate technology in developing countries. Technology in Society, 20, 371-375.

Zelov, C. & Cousineau, P. (1997). Design outlaws on the ecological frontier. Cape May, NJ: Knossus Publishing

Figure 1. Chart for documenting the analysis of a product’s life cycle. (Adapted from Mackenzie, 1991, p. 36)

Environmental or Social Issue	Product Life Cycle Stages
	Supply	Production	Distribution	Use	Disposal
Soil Contamination
Water Pollution
Air Pollution
Waste of Material Resources
Energy Consumption
Noise Pollution
Loss of Habitat
Social/Cultural Changes

Chapter 6

Cultural and Gender Issues In Appropriate Technology

Edward C. Pytlik & Ernest Frank III

West Virginia University

Morgantown, West Virginia

Anthony Akubue

St. Cloud State University

St. Cloud, Minnesota

The investigation into Appropriate Technology (AT) in the U. S. began with the realization by development experts and policy makers that technology transfers from the more industrialized countries were not improving conditions within the nations receiving the technology. The expectation that direct transfers of large-scale capital intensive technologies from highly developed countries (HDCs) to poorer lesser developed countries (LDCs) would initiate immediate economic and industrial expansion was negated by the many ancillary problems that such transfers induced. This transfer of technological systems from HDCs to LDCs failed to appreciate that development is primarily a social process and not a technological one. Jéquier (1976) noted that:

Imports of foreign ideas, values and technologies have a major part to play [in development], but few societies in history have developed exclusively on the basis of such imports. One of the major tasks facing the developing countries is to create, nurture and … rehabilitate their internal capacity to invent and innovate. (p. 16)

Since its inception by E. F. Schumacher, AT has been redefined to the point where there now are almost as many definitions for it as there are for the term technology itself. The definition used in this text: Appropriate Technology seeks to aid and support the human ability to understand, operate, and maintain technological systems to the benefit of humans while having the least negative societal and environmental impact on communities and the planet, adds to this collection. For this chapter, its broadness is an asset, because cultural and gender issues are very often ignored when other, less inclusive definitions are used. This definition allows for the inclusion of discussions on the different levels of appropriateness and the differing types of needs required by the various societal levels and genders.

Cultural Differences & Needs

For most cultures, development is viewed in terms of growth in aggregate economic values, brought about through advanced technology-led industrialization. This approach to development has yielded phenomenal gains in global and national economies over the years in the U. S. and most other industrialized nations. For example, in only three decades LDCs have experienced the equivalent growth that took advanced economies a century or more to attain. However, the achievement of this unprecedented global prosperity has occurred simultaneously with the worsening conditions of global poverty, unemployment, and inequality. Worse still, the achievements in global technological and socioeconomic development have not been gender equal. The proceeds from developmental progress tend to accrue disproportionately to males. Studies by the United Nations Development Program (1995) indicated that

70% of the approximately 1.3 million people living in poverty in the LDCs were women. In its 1995 Human Development Report, the UNDP observed: "For too long, it was assumed that development was a process that lifts all ... that it was gender neutral in its impact. Experience teaches otherwise" (p. 1). Economic growth without redistribution does little or nothing to assist the poor.

The following sections compare and contrast cultural and gender needs as they apply to the development and/or transfer of appropriate and sustainable technologies in LDCs and HDCs. Each section focuses on a development sector essential for overall growth and progress in society.

Environmental Issues

LDCs

The predominant motivation behind much of the AT movement in LDCs has been economic in nature. Environmental issues within the AT movement in HDCs have been decidedly marginalized. This difference in perspective has been sharply felt, particularly by those in the AT movement who are trying to achieve an acceptable level of national development. Accusations have been made by critics that the introduction of environmental issues into the AT movement is a veiled mechanism for class-based diversions by the wealthy nations, away from the true problems of development.

Yet, environmental concerns have always been represented by the AT movement, even within the LDCs. For example, deforestation, soil erosion, river pollution, and solid waste treatment/recycling are all problematic in LDCs. The potential for fusing environmental concerns with economic development objectives may be seen in the increasing interest in waste recycling. However, the focus is only of a secondary nature. It is difficult to expect the poor to express any profound interest in environmental issues while enduring mass starvation and death through disease. Thus, while theoretically compatible with environmental concerns and acknowledging the relatedness of environmental issues to economic sustainability, the AT movement in the LDCs has generally emerged apart from the environmental movement.

HDCs

In contrast to the situation in LDCs, environmentalism has supplied a great impetus to the AT movement in HDCs. The recognition of the need for environmentally compatible technologies is largely the result of HDCs extensive use of environmentally destructive technologies. AT is seen as that which does not violate the ecological system beyond the point of viability. Agricultural technologies and practices that lead to deforestation and erosion are not appropriate because they are not sustainable practices. Appropriate technologies are only those that are environmentally compatible. Willoughby (1990) recommended that:

waste products be re-used and recycled as much as possible; that maximum use be made of locally available resources, with technology being tailored to match those resources; that local and distant environmental impact be minimized where possible, with technology-practice taking full account of ecological principles and local ecosystems; that renewable resource supplies be used wherever possible; and that a transition to low-pollution, renewable-resource economy be pursued diligently. (p. 301)

Energy

LDCs

Schumacher stated that "energy is for the mechanical world what consciousness is for the human world. If energy fails, everything fails" (1973, p. 112). The economic prospects of the LDCs are directly related to the availability of energy. The dilemma is how to increase the energy use of the poor without causing undue pressures on global consumption and without creating too much dependence by the poor on essential resources over which they have little control and capacity to afford. Comprehensive energy planning is therefore a high priority for LDC’s.

Current development strategies run from the more traditional import-substituting industrialization to more radical alternatives that place severe limits on industrialization and propose near exc